Literal translationLiteral translation is also considered as a special procedure. It may use straightforward (paralel) equivalents, for example: He is the black sheep of the familv - Je č iernou ovcou rodiny. It may give a different meaning (lead sb by the nose - " vodit' niekoho za nos "), it has no or strange meaning (French letter - " francuzsky list"), it may have a strange grammatical structure in the TL, etc. (See alsoch. 1.3). Translator's note A translator's note is a footnote or an endnote added by the translator to the target text to provide additional information pertaining to the limits of the translation, the cultural background or any other explanations. In conclusion, we have to add that in most cases, these activities are used when there are no direct corresponding equivalents in the target language. They may be obligatory or optional. The use of a particular procedure is determined by different language systems, socio-cultural factors or individual approach. On the whole we can say that the procedures are frequently combined in the text/sentence.
Suggestions for further reading Chesterman 1997, Gromova 2003, Munday 2005, Newmark 1998 (1988) 3.2 Functional shifts As we have seen usually the identity/similarity of information at both ends (ST and TT), needs a change of the original language means, i.e. translation equivalents are frequently the result of a shift. Catford (1967) characterizes the shift as " departure from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to TL." (In: Munday 2005, 60). However, we also have to take into consideration some other facts. In other words the shift may be characterised as any change made in the original text (ST, e.g. addition, deletion...) taking into consideration also the TL socio-cultural reality, conventions and norms. As it is the function which we are trying to reproduce, we speak about the functional shift. (Compare Popovič et al 1983) Types of shifts Functional shifts may be of different types, namely: subjective - objective, positive - negative, linguistic - cultural. Popovič et al. (1983) when speaking about general typology mentions the shifts based on the following axes: - Objective - subjective (constitutive shifts - individual shifts) - Invariant - variant, (positive shifts - negative shifts) based on the character and extent of a loss and compensation and preservation of semantic and aesthetic information - Microstructure - macrostructure (linguistic shifts: sentence level and below - thematic shifts: actualisation in time and place, adaptation of the facts of everyday life, characters) - Functional (justified) - unjustified (useless), (generic, thematic, semantic, retardation/pragmatic shifts). Most frequently we speak about linguistic (systemic, constitutive), cultural and individual shifts. Linguistic (systemic/constitutive) shifts are a consequence of objective facts and are based on different systems of the languages in question (linguistic and stylistic norms) and are more or less obligatory. They are applied in microstructure (case, tense, articles, infinitive, word order, inflections, sequence of tenses...), e.g. cast pearls before swine - há dzaќperly sviniam; time is money - č as sъpeniaze; Je tu - He/she is here; Je tu? - Is he/she here? Neviem -1 do not know; Vies to? Do you know it? In this connection Catford (1967) applying contrastive linguistic approach, speaks about level shifts and category shifts (further subdivided into: structural shifts, class shifts, intra-system shifts and rank shifts). For example: hraќ (play) but dohraќ (finish playing); What's your name? - Ako sa volá š? Je tu - He/she is here; Je tu? - Is he/she here? I like it - pá č i sa mi to / má m to rá d(a); play the piano - hraќ na klavнri; pozajtra - the day after tomorrow; A medical student (š tudent medicнny, medik). Here's the news - nasledujъ/ vysielame sprá vy. Time is money - č as sit peniaze Cultural shifts are based on different approaches to extra linguistic reality, different conventions, traditions and usage (thematic shift, i.e. a substitution of the original facts, actualization of time and place, etc.): carry coals to Newcastle - liat'vodu do Dunaj a, nosit' drevo do lesa; take French leave - zmiznъќ po anglicky, fresh water fish - sladkovodnй ryby. Individual shifts are optional and are determined by individual approaches. They are based on various subjective factors, such as the translator's interpretation of the text and the author's intention, translation competence, (linguistic) skills, knowledge of the socio-cultural background of the text... Individual shifts may be positive (frequently based on compensation) or negative (determined especially by the translator's competence, knowledge, etc.) Popovič (1983) speaks also about generic shifts, rhythmic shifts, retardation shifts, etc. All these shifts are frequently combined. If we compare the ST and the TT taking into consideration the shifts from the stylistic point of view, we can speak about following types/situations: the agreement, enrichment or weakening of stylistic value and emotionality. For example: Agreement in the stylistic equivalence and emotionality: The beard is terrific. (D.Lodge) - Tá brada je ъž asná. (H. Heman) " And there's always the Peace Corps, " he remarked completely out of the blue. (E. Segal) - " A je tu Mierový zbor, " poznamenalz č istá jasna. (V. Maruš iaková) Enrichment of the stylistic value and emotionality of the TL equivalents (i.e. the use of more informal and emotional expression in the TL): Nothing's final - nothing's ever final with these guys... (J. D. Salinger) - Este nie ie ruka v ruká ve - pri taký ch frajeroch si č lovмk nie je nač istom. (J. Kot) pretty legs - pуvabnй nož ky. Weakening and neutralization of the stylistic value and emotionality (i.e. the use of a more neutral, less emotional expression in the TL): Tell whoever answers that my parents have turned out of the blue (K. Amis)...ž e mi neč akane pricestovali rodič ia. (E. Š imeč kovй) Listen, man, my ass is on the line. (M.Connely) - Poč ujte, č loveč e, ide tu aj o mfia. (P.Frank) not give a damn - nezaujнmat' sa. In this connection, the term " stylistic shift" may be used in the two latter types/cases. On the whole, as it was said before, we can state that the process of translation (as well as shifts) is usually relatively complex, and frequently it is the case of loss and compensation. If we want to have the identical message we have to make some language changes in some places and compensate in others (e.g. if we take away some means/features, consequently we should add some means/features). The key principle is as follows: what was taken away must be compensated to achieve the invariant message. Compensation may be characterized as a procedure/strategy, which involves achieving a similar effect in the target text through different means of expression than those in the source text. It means that different linguistic means are used in the target text in order to re-create the same effect in the same place or at a different place from that in the source. Compensation is most frequently used with puns, alliteration, rhyme, slang, metaphor, etc.
Suggestions for further reading Catford 1967, Gromová 1998, Kvetko 2006, Munday 2005, Popovič et al 1983, Vilikovský 1984 4Text-restricted translation studies
In general, when characterizing any text the following terms are used: the tone of the text, the intention of the text, the function of the text, the type of the text, the style and quality of writing, the degree of formality and the emotional colouring of the texts. The tone (of the texts) is defined in LED as the general feeling or attitude expressed in a piece of writing. OALD: the general character and attitude of something such as of writing or the atmosphere of an event: the overall tone of the book is gently nostalgic. The function represents a dominant emphasis in the text. Different texts have different functions (traditionally called: expressive, informative, appellative/vocative, aesthetic, phatic and metalinguistic). The texts express attitudes and feelings - expressive (emotive) function; they give information about extra- lingual reality - information (referential) function; they appeal to the reader - appellative (vocative, conative, directive) function; they are " designed to please senses" - aesthetic (poetic) function; they make and maintain contacts - phatic (social-interactive) function; they describe language - metalinguistic function. Most texts include more than one function, though one function is usually predominant. Scholars speak sometimes also about the following types of texts: narration, description, argumentation, conversation (dialogue), etc., or narrative, descriptive, instructive and argumentative texts. Each function uses its specific lexical, grammatical and stylistic means. All these facts are important and should also be taken into consideration in translation. They influence the translator's strategies, i.e. different approaches / solutions should be used for different texts. There are various types of texts, as well as various criteria for their classification. For example from the point of view of formality and emotional colouring (connotation in its broader sense), we distinguish neutral, stylistically (formal, informal) or emotionally marked texts. Taking into consideration the topic (field), texts are most frequently divided into literary and non-literary/technical texts, and we speak about translation of literary texts and translation of non- literary/technical texts. However, some scholars, including Snell-Hornby (1995) speak about this whole field as a continuum with literary texts, general information language texts and special language texts, i.e. translation of literary texts, translation of general information texts and translation of special language texts. Newmark (1998) divides the texts into literary, institutional and scientific texts and their translation.
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