Purposes and activitiesAccording to the Annex establishing the Commission, its main purpose is to carry out the necessary preparations for the effective implementation of the CTBT and to prepare for the first session of the Conference of States Parties to the Treaty which will take place when the Treaty has entered into force. The Commission’s duties focus on the promotion of the signing and ratification of the Treaty so that it can enter into force as soon as possible. Entry into force takes place 180 days (i.e. six months) after the Treaty has been ratified by the 44 States listed in its Annex 2. Another duty of the Commission is to establish a global verification regime to monitor compliance with the comprehensive ban on nuclear testing, which must be operational when the Treaty enters into force. This prodigious task involves the build up of 321 monitoring stations and 16 radionuclide laboratories throughout the world. It also includes the provisional operation of an International Data Centre (IDC) and the preparation of on-site inspections in case of a suspected nuclear test.
The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty by which states agree to ban all nuclear explosions in all environments, for military or civilian purposes. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996 but it has not entered into force due to the non-ratification of eight specific states.
Proponents of ratification claim that it would: 1. Establish an international norm that would push other nuclear-capable countries like North Korea, Pakistan, and India to sign. 2. Constrain worldwide nuclear proliferation by vastly limiting a country's ability to make nuclear advancements that only testing can ensure. 3. Not compromise US national security because the Science Based Stockpile Stewardship Program serves as a means for maintaining current US nuclear capabilities without physical detonation.
Opponents of ratification claim that: 1. The treaty is unverifiable and that other nations could easily cheat. 2. The ability to enforce the treaty was dubious. 3. The U.S. nuclear stockpile would not be as safe or reliable in the absence of testing. 4. The benefit to nuclear nonproliferation was minima
19. МАГАТЭ: создание, структура. МАГАТЭ и нераспространение ядерного оружия
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): - world's center of cooperation in the nuclear field - set up in 1957 within the UN family as the world's "Atoms for Peace" organization - its mission - promote safe, secure and peaceful nuclear technologies - guided by interests and needs of Member States, strategic plans and vision embodied in Statute (закон) - areas of work: Safety and Security; Science and Technology; Safeguards and Verification(контроль) - not under direct control of any UN body - reports to General Assembly and Security Council - main bodies: Board of Governors, General Conference, Secretariat
Structure The Board of Governors - policy making body - makes recommendations to the General Conference on IAEA activities and budget - responsible for publishing IAEA standards - appoints the Director General subject to General Conference approval
The General Conference (GC) - lesser policy making body - forum for debate on current issues and policies
The Secretariat • professional and general service staff • headed by the Director General • Director General oversees 6 departments: - Nuclear Energy - Nuclear Safety and Security - Nuclear Sciences and Applications - Safeguards - Technical Cooperation - Management
Main functions: - inspections of existing nuclear facilities to ensure peaceful use - information and standards to ensure stability of nuclear facilities - seeking peaceful applications of nuclear technology
20. Энергетическая стратегия в ХХI веке • The world will need greatly increased energy supply in the next 20 years, especially cleanly-generated electricity. • Electricity demand is increasing twice as fast as overall energy use and is likely to rise by more than two-thirds 2011 to 2035. In 2012, 42% of primary energy used was converted into electricity. • Nuclear power provides about 11% of the world's electricity, and 21% of electricity in OECD countries. • Nuclear power is the most environmentally benign way of producing electricity on a large scale. • Renewable energy sources other than hydro have high generating costs but can be helpful at the margin in providing clean power.
The March 2011 Fukushima accident set back public perception of nuclear safety, despite there being no deaths or serious radiation exposure from it (while the direct death toll from the tsunami which caused it was some 19,000). With 70 reactors being built around the world today, another 160 or more planned to come online during the next 10 years, and hundreds more further back in the pipeline, the global nuclear industry is clearly going forward strongly. Negative responses to the Fukushima accident, notably in Europe, do not change this overall picture. • Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, Germany has permanently shut down eight of its reactors and pledged to close the rest by 2022. • The Italians have voted overwhelmingly to keep their country non-nuclear. • Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new reactors. • Japan’s prime minister has called for a dramatic reduction in Japan’s reliance on nuclear power.
Energy strategy of the 21st century consists in sustainable development and the search for alternative energy resources. Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social and economic challenges faced by humanity. Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels. Renewable energy is generated from natural resources—such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally replenished). When comparing the processes for producing energy, there remain several fundamental differences between renewable energy and fossil fuels. The process of producing oil, coal, or natural gas fuel is a difficult and demanding process that requires a great deal of complex equipment, physical and chemical processes. On the other hand, alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment and naturally basic processes. Wood, the most renewable and available alternative energy, burns the same amount of carbon it would emit if it degraded naturally. There a large number of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere, from the conventional energy resources, such as coal, which pollute the environment. More and more countries prefer nuclear power in the 21st century. The accident at the "Fukushima" to influence public opinion, but the fundamental approaches to security remain the same, and nuclear power will continue to evolve. Forecasts were quite serious. Today they are: according to various estimates by 2030 in different countries appear from 150 to 200 new units. Several countries have reported rejection of nuclear power. However, these statements may be not so much technological as political. Nuclear power will not be developed in those countries that have not done before the accident on the "Fukushima". Such European countries as Italy, Austria. Germany often makes statements about renouncing of nuclear energy, but continues to work with the nuclear generation, which she has. As for Russia, plans to develop have not changed. Our plans depend solely on the economic and technological opportunities that we have. 21. Терроризм и ядерное оружие. Terrorism - deliberate violence or the threat of violence directed at innocent non-combatants and governments to cause fear systematically to attract media attention for causes which may be political or ideological or religious and which are viewed as coercive (насильств.). - Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim. - The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause. - The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose. - The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act.
Types of terrorism: - State Terrorism (when a State acts as a terroristic group; ex. Nazi Germany) - Bioterrorism (intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians) - Cyberterrorism (use information technology to attack civilians and draw attention to their cause) - Ecoterrorism (new term; violence in the interests of environmentalism; sabotage property to inflict economic damage on industries in spheres of fur, logging, animal research laboratories, for example) - Nuclear terrorism (refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons, or building nuclear weapons or otherwise finding ways to disperse radioactive materials.)
Nuclear terrorism is the most dangerous form; it could lead to unpredictable consequences. A number of institutions were created to protect the world from it: - IAEA (Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and inhibits its use for military purposes. Carries out control over the nuclear objects all around the world with help of special commissions) - Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (limits the spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons; opened for signature on July 1, 1968. There are currently 189 countries party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China)
Nuclear weapons: - Uranium based (enrichment level 80-90% (for nuclear plants 2-4.5%), 45-50 kg minimum) - Plutonium based (ex. Nagasaki bomb: 8kg Pu-239) - Nuclear weapon is hard to be assembled, it demands a huge amount of enriched uranium 235 and plutonium 239. Just the most developed states managed to produce and test it. A terroristic organization has no material and scientific resources to design such complicated weapon.
22. Безопасность (Safety and security) использования ядерного топлива Safety and security of the use of nuclear fuel Safety culture – attitude among staff towards safety Safeguards – international accounting and verification system designed to ensure that fissile material is only used for peaceful purposes. ALARA – reduce doses as low as reasonably possible ALARP – reduce accidents to as low as reasonably practicable Security – freedom from illegal acts such as terrorism Safety – freedom from radiological and non-radiological accidents.
Weakness of the NPT: - the state can decide that it’s not in his interest to inform you and it may not do so then you’ll never know what’s happening. - you have to develop your own ability to observe non-intrusively its territory.(satellites with sensors)
+The UN Environment Programme also deals with the safeguards of nuclear materials. Chernobyl. The international scale of accidents/incidents.
Safety nuclear material is when transported: Canister – small container for vitrified HLW Cask – packaging for carrying or storing highly radioactive material. Packaging – hardware into which radioactive contents is inserted Package – packaging plus its contents Overpack – an extra covering around the packaging
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