MEDICAL SPECIALTIES AND SPECIALISTS 13 страницаAccording to recent scientific theories, left-handed people have a better chance of becoming great sportsmen. Did you know that majority of tennis, table tennis, fencing and boxing champions are left-handed? Left-handed people's brains work better and more quickly. This characteristic is very important in individual sports and in those like tennis, table tennis, boxing and fencing where players move closer or further away during the game. In these fields, the athletes' reaction times are of fundamental importance and a left-handed person can think quicker than his adversary. Left-handedness emerges most strikingly in the arts; back in the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci. Michelangelo and Hans Holbein were all notable left-handers. The most famous left-handed person of all times is Leonardo da Vinci. He invented a system of writing which went from right to left which was much more suited to him than the traditional method. There are even famous left-handed people in the world of music like Beethoven and Paganini. Add talented individuals such as Paul Klee, Charlie Chaplin, Lenny Bruce, Greta Garbo, Marilyn Monroe, Marcel Marceau, Jimi Hendrix — and you are bound to conclude that lefties have as strong a set of advantages as handicaps.
7. Vegetarians
The word "'vegetarians" was coined about 1840 to mean people who lived without killing "or food, either for normal or health reasons, or both. But the practice is much older than::iat. Greek philosophers recommended vegetarianism and famous people who practised it in.ic past include Leonardo da Vinci, Tolstoy and Voltaire, Milton, Newton and Bernard Shaw. S -ireiy this proves that mental activity does not depend on flesh foods. What are the arguments:.ai might stop us from eating meat? Man's body is more like those of fruit-eating animals (such as our "cousins'1 the apes) that •;e those of flesh eating animals. For millions of years a man must have lived on fruit, nuts -.. J leaves and so developed a digestive system. Perhaps the more we move away from this diet a ards meat-eating, the less likely we are to be healthy. Cancer, tuberculosis and heart diseases certainly more common in meat-eating communities. Man may have started eating the flesh: animals during the ice Age when most of vegetation was destroyed. A diet of vegetables, fruit, grains and nuts together with a few dairy products can give us:he vitamins and minerals we need. By eating meat we are getting the basic food elements.. ndhand after they have been digested by the animal. It is worth considering how wasteful,./--caters are with land. A meat-eater needs about three times as much land to support himself -; lis animals as a vegetarian does. For every 45 kilos of dry food eaten by cattle only 1.8-7.3 - come back as food for us, humans - an expensive method of producing food. PARTTHREE HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS (in Anatomy, Pathology and Pharmacology)
UNIT ONE
I. Speaking: Human Body After careful study of this unit, you should be able to: - define the terms of anatomy, physiology, and pathology; - describe the organization of the body from cells to the whole organism; - name 10 body systems; give the general function of each; - define metabolism and other processes; - differentiate between extracellular and intracellular fluids; - briefly explain the role of ATP in the body; - list and define the main directional terms for the body.
Exercise 1. Learn the following words and word combinations. anabolism [з'пгеЬзДігзт] анаболізм anatomy [s'najtami] анатомія ATP [eiti:pi:] (adenosine triphosphate 0e'den3,si:n,trai'fbsfeit]) АТФ (аденозин-трифосфорна кислота) catabolism [кзЧжЬз.Іігзт] катаболізм cell [sel] клітина homeostasis [,h3umi3o'st3isis] гомеостаз metabolism [ms'tajbsjizsm] метаболізм organ ['oigan] орган pathology [ps'Bstacbji] патологія physiology [,fizi'оізсізі] фізіологія tissue ['tisju:] тканина muscular ['nviskjuls] м'язовий systems ['sistemz] системи (органів): circulatory [,s3:kju:'l3it3ri] кровообігу digestive [di'dsestiv] травна respiratory ['resp3r3,to:ri] дихальна integumentary [in,t3gju:'ment3ri] покривна urinaryf'jusrinsri], excretory [eks'krr.tori] сечовидільна nervous ['nsivss] нервова endocrine ['endsukrain] ендокринна glands [glasndz] залози hormones ['Ьз:тзипг] гормони reproductive [.rhprs'dAktiv] відтворювальна, статева Exercise 2. Read the text. Everyone is interested in the body and how it works. Anatomy studies the body structure. Physiology is the term for the study of how the body functions. These two sciences are closely related. They form the basis for all medical practice. Any changes in the structure of the body or its functions are considered a disease and are studied as a science of pathology. All living things are organized from very simple levels to more complex levels. Living matter begins with simple chemicals. These chemicals are formed into complex substances:hat make living cells - the basic units of all life. Specialized groups of cells form tissues, and tissues may function together as organs. Organs make up systems of organs, which maintain the body. There are following systems of organs in the body: - skeletal system (it supports the body): - muscular system (it allows the body to move); - circulatory system with lymphatic system transport nutrients, oxygen and other substances:: the body cells and carry away waste materials; - digestive system (it takes food in and converts it into substances that the body cells can -se): - respiratory system (it takes oxygen in and releases carbon dioxide from the blood); - integumentary system means the skin and its appendages: hair, nails, sweat and oil - ands; - urinary or excretory system (it eliminates waste products and water); - nervous system (it receives stimuli and controls responses; memory and reasoning also..■ jng to the nervous system occurring in the brain); - endocrine system (it produces hormones for regulation of growth, metabolism, mrroduction); -reproductive system is concerned with the production of offsprings. All the chemical reactions needed to sustain life we call metabolism. Metabolism can be: ied into two types of activities: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism is the breakdown of complex substances into simpler ones. Anabolism is the " -: ng of body materials. The energy obtained from the breakdown of nutrients is used to form a compound of th. ceil we call ATP (adenosine triphosphate). There are many kinds of fluids in the organism. Extracellular fluids carry nutrient substance -to and from the cell, bathe the cell, transport substances in and out of the cell. Intracellular nut-is in the cell. Homeostasis is the steady state of the organism that maintains a state of balance within the body: body temperature, composition of body fluids, heart rate, respiration rate, blocv pressure. Homeostasis is maintained by feedback. Any changes in the body balance lead t>: norm violation, this mechanism is described as negative feedback. Exercise 3. Text exercises. 1) Translate the text, title it. 2) Write out the underlined words, add them to your vocabulary, translate them. 3) A.sk your fellow student about each system of the body and its functions in the
Exercise 4. Find Latin or Greek equivalents of the English words:
Exercise 5. Are the sentences true or false? 1. Anatomy is the study of how the body functions. 2. Pathology is the science of diseases. 3. The smallest unit in the organism is the cell. 4. An organ is the unity of tissues that functions together. 5. Homeostasis is the balance in the organism. 6. Intracellular fluid carries nutrients to the cells. Exercise 6, Answer the following questions: 1. What are three studies of the human body? 2. Wliat is the cell? Tissue? Organ? System? (Give the definitions.) 3. Can you name 10 systems of organs? What are they? 4. What is metabolism? 5. What is the difference between anabolism and catabolism? 6. What is ATP? 7. Can you give an example of homeostasis? How does homeostasis maintain? 8. What do we mean by "negative feedback"? II. Grammar Exercises
Exercise 1. Write affirmative or negative sentences. Use am/am not; is/isn't; are/
Exercise 2. Open the brackets and put the personal pronouns in the appropriate form. 1. This medicine will give (they) an instant relief. 2. The doctor prescribed (he) a proper treatment. 3. Do you know (we) district doctor? - Yes, I know (she). We got acquainted with (she) when I was on duty at the in-patient department. 4. This medical examination will take (I) some hours. The doctors will have to examine (I) thoroughly. 5. A young doctor asked (he) to strip to the waist and listened to (he) heart and lungs. 6. You must be out in the open air as much as possible: fresh air is useful for (you). Exercise 3. Add sentences using the appropriate modal verbs or their equivalents (see the Model). Model: It was late, we (to go) home. - As it was late, we had to go home. 1. As my friend is ill, I (to go and see) her. 2. We didn't add nitric acid as the reagent no affect) the results. 3. My friend works at a research institute and soon (to conduct) his investigations in biological chemistry. 4. It is cold today, you (to put on) your winter clothes. 5. Last summer when we had practice at the botanical station we (to collect) different parts of medicinal plants. 6. You (to describe) chemical properties of these compounds.
Exercise 4. Give antonyms of these words and word combinations. To graduate from college, to come into the room, ill, to fall ill with, easy, to be in a good -rendition, his hands and face were dry, his pulse was slow, to continue the process, slight pain,!ight food, to excite, to feel rotten, to be indoors all day long, an out-patient department, slow „'lief, it makes the pain stronger, to put on a gown. Exercise 5. Change the following sentences from the active voice into the passive \ oice. 1. She is rubbing in a healing ointment to relieve pain and skin irritation. 2. The nurse was r.ving a patient an injection of camphor at 8 p.m. yesterday. 3. The students are taking notes of the lecture now. 4. The chemist was marking bottles of poisonous drugs. 5. The doctor is taking the patient's blood pressure now. 6. The therapeutists were questioning their patients thoroughly. 7. The doctors are treating me at our out-patient department. 8. My mother was having a scalding foot bath at 10 p.m. 9. Doctor X. is seeing patients in Room 17. 10. Our district doctor was making calls when I came to the polyclinic. 11. We are ordering drugs for intravenous injections at this chemist's. 12. Those patients were following a strict diet. 13. She is making the daily round of the district now. 14. The chemist is giving me a bottle of mixture. 15. The overdosage of this drug was causing an untoward reaction. 16. The doctor is checking the patient's eyesight. Exercise 6. Make up dialogs on the following topics using the given words and word combinations. 1) A doctor is questioning a patient about his health: trouble, to complain of, to suffer from, occupation, address, age, to feel pain in. 2) A nurse is carrying out doctor's prescriptions: to give an injection of to take smb's temperature, to apply a mustard plaster to, to cup, to put a hot water bottle on smb s feet. 3) A doctor is examining a patient at home: to put on a gown, to wash hands, to strip to the waist, to apply a stethoscope to, to listen to the heart, to palpate the abdomen, to feel smb s pulse.
UNIT TWO
I. Speaking: Chemistry, Matter and Life After careful study of this unit you should be able to: - describe the structure of an atom; - differentiate between atoms and molecules; - define the atomic number of an atom; - differentiate between elements and compounds; - explain why water is so important to the body; - define mixture, name three types of mixtures; - define acid, base, and salt; - give characteristics of organic compounds; - define enzyme. Exercise 1. Learn the following words and word combinations, acid ['aesictj кислота atom ['setam] атом base [beis] основа, луг carbohydrate [,ka:bau'haidreit] вуглевод compound ['kampaund] складний; суміш; сполучення, сполука electron [i'lektran] електрон element ['elimsnt] елемент enzyme ['enzaim] фермент ion [аізп] іон lipid [lipid] ліпід mixture ['mikstfa] суміш; мікстура molecule ['niDlikju:l] молекула neutron ['njir.tron] нейтрон organic [3:'gasnik] органічний pH ['pi: eitT] водневий показник protein ['preutkn] білок proton ['prsotDn] протон solute [sD'lju:t] розчин; розчинена речовина solution [s3'lu:J(a)n] розчин solvent ['solvent] розчинник suspension [sas'penjn] суспензія matter ['maets] речовина; матерія absorption [£eb'so:pJ(3)n] абсорбція, всмоктування, вбирання excretion [iks'kri:J(3)n] виділення
Exercise 2. Read the text.
Chemistry, Matter, and Life
Chemistry is the science that deals with the composition of matter. Knowledge of chemistry and chemical changes helps us to understand the normal and abnormal functioning of the body and its parts. The main processes are based on chemical principles. Chemistry is important in microbiology and pharmacology. Atoms, molecules, elements, compounds, and mixtures are fundamental units of matter. Atoms are the basic units of matter that make up various elements on the Earth. Everything about us, everything we can see and touch, is made of atoms - the food we eat, the atmosphere, я atcr in rivers, seas and oceans. Each atom has a definite structure. At the center of an atom there is a nucleus with positively charged protons and noncharged neutrons. Outside the nucleus in orbitals there are negatively charged electrons (Fig. 2-1). Atoms are fundamental units that make up the chemical elements from which all matter is ~ade. The entire universe is made up of about 105 elements. Elements can be identified by their Raines, symbols, or their atomic numbers. The atomic number is equal to the number of protons that are presenting the nucleus (the ■ -imber of protons is equal to the number of electrons). Look at the Table:
Common Chemical Elements Found in the Human Body
When, on the basis of electron structure, two or more atoms unite, a molecule is formed. For example, a molecule of water contains 1 atom of oxygen and 2 atoms of hydrogen (Fig. 2-2). Substances that contain molecules formed by the union of two or more different atoms are called compounds. These combinations may be simple and very complex. Water is the most necessary compound in the body. No plant or animal, including human, can live very long without water.
- it is the universal solvent (it dissolves minerals, nutrients and gases); - it is a stable liquid (it doesn't freeze until the temperature falls to 0"C and doesn't boil until the temperature rises to 100 C); - it participates in chemical reactions that occur in the cells. Not all elements or compounds combine chemically when brought together. The air we breathe consists of gases: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and their proportions in the air may vary. The blood plasma also consists of various components. Such combinations are called mixtures - blends of two or more substances. Solution is substance (solute) remains evenly distributed in a solvent (e.g. salt in water, glucose in water). Suspension is a dispersion of fine solid or liquid particles in a fluid, the particles being supported by buoyancy (e.g. red blood cells in plasma, milk of magnesia, india ink). Colloidal suspension forms when the particles do not dissolve but remain suspended (e.g. cytoplasm, blood plasma). An acid is a chemical substance capable of donating a hydrogen ion (H+) to another substance. A common example is HC1 (hydrochloric acid, found in the stomach juices: HC1 - H' + Ch A base is a chemical substance usually containing a hydroxide ion (Off) that can accept a hydrogen ion: NaOH -» Na +OH. A reaction between an acid and a base produces salt: HC1 + NaOH -» NaCl + H,0. Acids, bases and salts are chemical compounds. In the body there are also organic compounds: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen containing. The main types of them are carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Carbohydrates are the simple sugars called monosaccharides [,іштзи'saeks raidz]. Examples of carbohydrates in the body are the glucose that circulates in the blood as a food for the cell and a storage form of glucose called glycogen ['glaikaixhpn]. Fats, or lipids, are also a store of energy in the body. They provide insulation and protection for the body organs. All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, they may also have sulfur and phosphorus. Proteins are composed of building blocks called amino [з'таіпзп] acids. About twenty different amino acids are found in the body. An important group of proteins is enzymes. Enzymes function as catalysts in hundreds of reactions that occur in metabolism. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction but is not changed or used up in that reaction. Examples of them are: amylase, lipase, oxidase.
Exercise 3. Title each passage of the text making a plan of it. Exercise 4. Find English equivalents of the Latin words, give Ukrainian translation. atomus, i, f compositus, a, um structura, ae, f mixtura, ae, f celula, ae, f oxygenium, ae, f solutio, onis, f hydrogenium, i, n sulfur, uris, n phosphorus, і, m simplex, icis saccharum, i, n Exercise 5. Look at Figure 2-1 and describe the atom of oxygen. Exercise 6. Translate into English. 1. Протони - це позитивно заряджені частки. 2. Нейтрони - це нейтральні частки ядра. 3. Електрони - це негативно заряджені частки на енергетичних рівнях навколо ядра 4. Сполуки - це поєднання різних атомів. 5. Мікстура - це суміш кількох речовин. Exercise 7. Answer the following questions. 1. What science is chemistry? 2. What are atoms and what is known of their structure? 3. What chemical elements do you know? 4. Why is water so important to life? 5. What is the difference between a mixture and a compound? 6. You dissolve a teaspoon of sugar in a cup of tea. Which is a solute? A solvent? 7. What are organic compounds and what elements are found in all of them? 8. What type of organic compounds are enzymes? 9. What are proteins? Fats? Carbohydrates?
Exercise 8. Complete the sentences. Atoms Molecules Elements Compounds Mixtures Acid Base Salt Enzyme blends of 2 or more substances, combinations of different atoms, basic units of matter, combinations of 2 or more atoms, substances that cannot be changed into something else. a chemical substance capable of donating a hydrogen ion (FT). a chemical substance resulting from a reaction between an acid and a base. a chemical substance containing a hydroxide ion (OH). an organic catalyst.
II. Grammar Exercises Exercise 1. Name the form of the verb in passive voice. Translate the sentences. 1. The patient was treated by a well-known doctor. 2. The temperature is taken regularly. 3. Both children were cured of a dangerous disease. 4. The skin is washed by a surgeon with a soap and running water. 5. An enema will be given in the morning. 6. Operations are being performed by this surgeon. 7. A deep cut was made by the operator. 8. The drug was being taken by the patient when he came in. Exercise 2. Put the verbs in the correct form. Translate the sentences. 1. The skeleton and teeth of the human body (містити) ions which (утворювати) from organic acids and bases and compounds of fluorine. 2. About one tenth of phosphorus (сполучати) with organic compounds. 3. Climate, temperature and intake of drags (впливати) the amount of water in the body. 4. Chronic poisoning (відбуватись) when the dose is sufficient to cause moderate 5. Methyl alcohol (змішувати) in all proportions with water. 6. Iron, cobalt and nickel which (входити до складу) Group VIII of the Periodic Classification (знаходити) wide use in medicine. 7. When different atoms (сполучати), the formulas (показувати) what atoms and how many of them are present.
8. Melting and boiling (розглядати) as physical changes. 9. More than 20 amino acids (виділяти) from protein mass during our last experiment. 10. All the vessels (промити) carefully and (сушити). 11.The change in density (спостерігати) at the end of the test. Exercise 3. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian, explain the use of the word it. 1. Sodium, a silver-colored metal, is very soft. It is also known to be a very reactive 2. The river or lake water is a mixture of substances, some dissolved in it, others suspended in it. 3. It is generally recognized that the primeval life forms developed in the waters of the 4. It is necessary to store the buffer solution in a dark place. 5. It was commonly believed that milk contained an acid. 6. To demonstrate coagulation he diluted milk with water, brought it to the boiling point, 7. It is recommended to close glass bottles with glass caps. Exercise 4. Replace all the nouns with personal pronouns. 1. The patient will be looked after by the ward nurse. 2. The wounded was operated upon by the surgeon. 3. The work of a nurse was much spoken about by the students. 4. The younger children are being taken care of by the elder sister. 5. The articles were read by many students. Exercise 5. Make up sentences using the following word expressions. as a result of у результаті as a rule як правило after all а втім; зрештою; кінець кінцем because of дякуючи; у результаті except for за винятком in other cases в іншому випадку
Exercise 6. Answer the questions using the expression it takes... 1. How long does it take you to go to your medical college? 2. How long does it take to translate a text? 3. How long does it take to perform appendectomy? 4. How long did it take to cure the child from measles? 5. How long does it take to make a blood analysis?
UNIT THREE
I. Speaking: Cells and Their Functions After careful study of this unit you should be able to: ~ describe the function of the cytoplasm and its composition; - name the main organelles in the cell; - give location and function qf'DNA in the cell; - give location and function of RNA in the cell; - explain how the cell makes proteins; - describe the steps in cell division; - define cancer; - list several risk factors in cancer.
Exercise 1. Learn the following words and word combinations: active transport - активне переміщення cancer ['kasnss] рак cell membrane - клітинна оболонка centriole ['sentri.sol] ценгріоля chromosome ['krsoms.ssum] хромосома cytoplasm ['saitsplaezm] цитоплазма diffusion [di'fju^n] дифузія DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid [dii.Dksiraibanjo'kleiik'eisid]) - ДНК (дезоксирибонуклеїнова кислота) isotonic [aiss'ronik] ізотонічний micrometer [mai'kromita] мікрометр mitochondrion [.maitao'kDndrisn] мітохондрія mitosis [mai'tsusis] мітоз mutation [mju:'teijn] мутація nucleus ['nju:klias] ядро organelle [,D:gs'nel] органела osmosis [m'msusis] осмоз phagocytosis [,faeg9sai'tausis] фагоцитоз ribosome ['raibssDum] рибосома RNA (ribonucleic acid [raibsnju'kleiik'eisid]) - PHK (рибонуклеїнова кислота) lysosome ['lais3,ssom] лізосома Golgi ['gDldji] apparatus - апарат Гольджі
Exercise 2. Look at Fig. 3-1.
Exercise 3. Read the text and translate it.
Cells and Their Functions
Look at the cell (Fig. 3-2). The outer covering of the cell is the cell membrane. It is very important in regulating what can enter and leave the cell. The main substance that fills the cell and holds the cell contents is the cytoplasm. This is a colloidal suspension of water, food, minerals, enzymes and other specialized materials.
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