Verbals
Each English verb has finite and non-finite forms. Finite forms of the verb are those expressing person and number. There are twenty finites in English (12active forms and 8 passive forms). A verbal is such a form of the verb which when associated with a substantive element is not restricted in person and number. It means that they do not express person and number. There are three verbals in English: The Infinitive, gerund and Participle. e.g. I want you to do that. Do you mind my opening the window? I saw them entering the shop. Consequently non-finite forms are seldom used as predicates. e.g. I want to sleep. (Here tie infinitive is only a part of a compound verbal modal predicate)
General characteristics of the verbals: 1) Due to their origin all the verbals have a double nature, nominal and verbal; the Participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective; the Gerund and the Infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun: Infinitive=Noun +Verb Gerund = Noun+ Verb Participle= Verb + Adjective 2). They are capable to build predicative constructions, i.e. constructions consisting of 2 elements: nominal (noun or pronoun) and verbal (Participle, Gerund, infinitive). In such constructions the verbal element stands in the predicate relation to the nominal element, i.e. in a relation similar to that between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. 3). Time-indication by the verbal is not absolute but relative, i.e. they don’t show whether the action expressed by the verbal refers to the present, past or future; they only show whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with or prior to the action expressed by the finite verb. e.g. I know him to have already finished school.
The Infinitive
The origin: it developed from the old English noun which in course of time became verbalized, retaining at the same time some of its nominal properties. The definition: the general grammatical meaning of the infinitive is that of a substantivized action, i.e. an action presented as substance (compare– прыгание, бегание). Thus, the Infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb with the grammatical meaning of a substantivized action (опредмеченное действие) sharing the verbal and nominal properties. The verbal properties of the Infinitive are manifested in the categories of voice, aspect and time-correlation (compare: the finites are determined by 7 grammatical categories (2+5). The grammatical categories of person and number are not characteristic of the English verb). Since the Infinitive is determined by the grammatical category of voice whose grammatical meaning is activity or passivity, it has active and passive forms. The Infinitive has six voice forms (4+2). Four Active Forms: to do, to be doing, To have done, to have been doing.
Two passive forms: to be done, to have been done. Since the Infinitive is determined by the grammatical category of aspect whose grammatical meaning is continuity–– non-continuity, it has continuous and non-continuous forms. The infinitive has six aspect forms (4+2). Four non-continuous forms: to do, to be done, to have done, to have been done. Two continuous forms: to be doing, to have been doing Since the Infinitive is determined by the category of time-correlation whose grammatical meaning is simultaneity and priority, it has perfect and non-perfect forms (3+3). Three non-perfect forms: to do, to be done, to be doing Three perfect forms: to have done, to have been done, to have been doing. The Infinitive can never express present, past or future for it has not the category of tense. It expresses ‘time’ only relatively through the grammatical category of time-correlation. The use of the Infinitive in speech: 1) The Infinitive can express an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb: e. g. I am glad to receive letters. 2).The Infinitive can express an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb but in process: e. g. I am glad to be living here at this time. The infinitive can express an action prior to the action expressed the finite verb: e. g. He is glad to have taken your advice. 3).Note: The perfect infinitive when used after the verbs to intend, to expect, to hope, to mean and the modal verb should, ought to, to be to has the additional meaning of unreality–– it will indicate that the action denoted by the infinitive was not performed. e. g. He intended (ought) to have come. (It was his intention or it was necessary for him to do, but it did not happen) Harriet was surprised although she realized when she thought about it that she ought not to havebeen there. 4). The infinitive can express an action of prior duration: e. g. I am pleased to have been walking there.
The infinitive may be used both in active and passive forms. When it is used in the active form the grammatical subject of the sentence is the doer of the action expressed by the finite verb and the infinitive: e. g. I am glad to go to the South. Note: In certain cases the Infinitive though active in form may be passive in meaning. The Infinitive may indicate it when used as predicative in some traditional contexts: e. g. They were not to blame. The reason is not far to seek. The house is to let. If the infinitive is used in the passive form the grammatical subject is the doer to the action expressed by the finite verb and the sufferer of the action expressed by the infinitive: e. g. I am glad to have been told this news.
The nominal properties of the Infinitive are manifested in different syntactic functions. Note: we define the function of the Infinitive by: 1. the position of the Infinitive in the sentence; 2. its syntactic connection with other words of the sentence.
The co-occurrence of the Infinitive (use, distribution). In sentence it may occur: 1).Singly (without any accompanying words) e. g. He continued to speak. 2).In phrases (when the Infinitive is extended by an object or an adverbial modifier or both): e. g. I want to seeyou at once. Note: Verbals are seldom used alone, without some accompanying words, such as nouns that form different kinds of objects to the verbals or adverbs forming adverbial modifiers to them. Together with these nouns, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions verbals make phrases. In the English Grammatical tradition (unlike the Russian one) it is the syntactical analysis that shows that these phrases form one invisible whole and are to be treated as one part of the sentence. Sometimes the elements dependent on the non-finite verb form may be numerous (they may even include a clause), but nevertheless they form one whole which performs one function in the sentence. 3). In infinitival complexes, whose components stand in the predicate relation towards each other. They are three: for-to-complex, the complex object and the complex subject constructions.
The use of the Infinitive without the particle ‘to’ (The Bare Infinitive).
In Modern English the infinitive is chiefly used with the Particle ‘to’. In Old English ‘to’ was a preposition used with the infinitive in the Dative Case to indicate purpose. Later, ‘to’ was reinterpreted as a formal sign of the infinitive and came to be used not only to denote purpose but in other cases as well. Still there are cases when the so-called bare infinitive is used (without the particle ‘to’) is used. They are as follows: 1. After auxiliary and modal verbs except ought to, used to, be to, have to e. g. Do you know what time is it now? You must come and see us one day. Dare he refuse? – No, he dare not refuse. Note: Clauses, which explain the exact meaning of to do, can have the infinitive without ‘to’ e. g. All I did was (to) give him a little push. What a fire door does is (to) delay the spread of a fire long enough for people to get out. 2. After some expressions: had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, to do nothing but, cannot choose but. Note: had better, would rather, to do nothing but belong to Colloquial English whereas cannot but, cannot choose but are characteristic of elevated style. e. g. … I think, if you don’t mind, that I’d rather be an actress than a writer. (J. Webster) I would rather have roses on my table than diamonds on my neck. (Emma Goldman) I would rather risk my Crown than do what I think personally disgraceful. (George III) 3. After the verbs ‘to let’, ‘to make’ (in the meaning of «заставлять») and ‘to have’ (in the meaning of «заставлять, велеть, допускать»), and after the verb ‘to bid’, and the expression ‘to make do’ (in the meaning of “to manage”). Note: the verb ‘to have’ in the meaning of «допускать» is chiefly used after modal verbs will, would in negative sentences e. g. Let sleeping dogs lie. You would better let your heart be without than your words without heart.
Pride sometimes makes us do things well but it is love that makes us do them to perfection I won’t have you come to my house. I bowed and waited thinking she would bid me take a seat. We will have to make do with what we have got.
4). After the verbs denoting sense perception such as ‘to hear’, ‘to see’, ‘to watch’, ‘to notice’, ‘to feel’, ‘to know’ (when its meaning approaches to that of ‘to see’, ‘to observe’ but the verb ‘to know’ never has this meaning in the Present Indefinite)+ the verb ‘to help’ in an informal style; it is also possible to use ‘help’ without an object. e. g. I heard him come to the window. I helped her (to) carry the heavy suitcase. Would you like to help peel the potatoes? I have never known him (to) say a thing like that. Note 1: The verb ‘to be’ after the verb ‘to feel’ is used with the ‘to’ e. g. I felt this to be very true. Note 2: After the verbs ‘to hear’, ‘to to see’, ‘to make’, ‘to know’ in the Passive Voice the ‘to-infinitive’ is used. e. g. I was made to get up early. He was seen to enter the office building. He was heard to go to the South. He was known to be a good doctor. 5. After ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘except’, ‘but’, ‘than’ when these conjunctions join two infinitive structures; it must be said that the second infinitive is often used without ‘to’. e. g. It’s easier to persuade people than (to)force them. She wanted to go and see the film. She didn’t know whether to laugh or cry. Note: The combination ‘rather than’ is followed by the bare infinitive. e. g. Rather than waste time doing it yourself why don’t you call a plumper? Though a gerund is often used after ‘rather than’ instead of the bare infinitive. e. g. I’d like to read the book rather than lying. 6. In sentences of a special type beginning with ‘why (not)’ Why + infinitive (without ‘to’) can be used to introduce questions. The point of the question is usually to suggest that it is stupid or pointless to do something: e. g. Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices. Why stand up if you can sit down? Why sit down if you can lie down?
Why + infinitive (without ‘to’) introduces suggestions or advice OR there is nothing to prevent one from performing the certain action: e. g. Why not let me lend you some money? Why not come and talk to her yourself? (Почему бы вам самой не пойти и не поговорить с ней?)
Other Specific Cases of the Use of the Infinitive in Speech
1.Sometimes the infinitive can be omitted if its meaning is understood from the context: e. g. – Can you and Mary come to lunch on Sunday? – We’d love to. 2. The particle ‘to’ may be separated from the infinitive by an adverb; this is so-called “split infinitive”. It is hardly ever used in Colloquial English: e. g. He was unable, however, to long keep silence. Lots of people consider split infinitive structures “a bad style” and avoid them if possible. However, it is not always possible to construct sentences in other ways without changing the meaning if the sentence: e. g. Your job is to really make the Club a success. (Here ‘really’ intensifies the meaning of ‘make’) Your job is really to make the Club a success. (Here “Your job is really…” means ‘the real purpose of your job’).
3. There are specific infinitival constructions denoting the only possible action that can be performed under the circumstances. The use of this infinitive is structurally dependent–– it is preceded by except and but and is generally used in negative or interrogative sentences (after nothing could but, he could do nothing but, what could he do but, he couldn’t help but and the like…).The infinitive is, as a rule, used without to. e.g. There was nothing to do but escape. What could he do but smile? 1. With the expressions to be glad, to be sorry the infinitive is used if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive: e. g. I am glad to have got a ticket for the concert. I am glad to have seen you. In other cases a clause is used with to be glad, to be sorry: e. g. I am glad you’ve got a ticket for the concert. “I am glad you think so,” returned Doyce…
The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive
The infinitive in the sentence can perform different syntactic function 1. as a subject. In this function the infinitive can be placed at the beginning of the sentence: e. g. To understand all is to pardon all. (A. L. De Stael) To err is human to forgive is divine. To forget one’s ancestors is to be a brook without a source, a tree without a root. But more common are structures in which the infinitive as the subject is introduced by it. It takes place in the following cases: a). Nouns and adjectives are used predicatively and express one’s necessity, opinion, recommendation. The adjectives used in this case are as following:
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