For more information, check in a good dictionary.
Unit 4 Passives
Passive forms are made by using the auxiliary ‘be’ in any tense followed by the past participle of the verb.
The forms of future progressive passive (will be being done) and perfect progressive passive (has been being done) are not used. The use of passive tense forms is similar to the use of active tense forms. There can only be a slight difference in meaning with passive forms referring to states and actions. E.g. When we came to the office, our papers were already signed. (a state) … наши документы были уже подписаны. When we came, our documents had already been signed. (an action) … наши документы уже подписали. When a sentence is changed into passive, the object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. E.g. They built this house in 1900. The house was built in 1900. Thus, only the verbs that can take an object can have passive forms. E.g. They arrived at the station. (But NOT: They were arrived.) Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive. Most of these are state verbs (which do not refer to actions). Examples are: ‘ fit, have, lack, resemble, suit ’, etc. E.g. They have a nice house. (But NOT: A nice house is had.) My shoes don’t fit me. (But NOT: I’m not fitted by my shoes.) She’s having a bath. (But NOT: A bath is being had by her.) Passive forms are used when the speaker wants to talk about an action and is not interested in saying who does it, so the agent of the action is normally not mentioned. However, if the speaker means to lay certain emphasis on the agent, a phrase beginning with ‘by’ is used. E.g. All the trouble was caused by your mother. = It was your mother who caused all the trouble. Many verbs, such as ‘give, send, show, lend, pay, promise, offer’, etc. can be followed by two objects and have two passive constructions. E.g. They offered me a good job. I was offered a good job. – Мне предложили хорошую работу. A good job was offered to me. – Хорошую работу предложили мне. The verbs ‘explain, dictate, describe, announce, repeat, point out, suggest’ can take two objects (one referring to a thing, and the other referring to a person with the preposition ‘to’) but form only one passive construction. E.g. They explained the rule to me. – The rule was explained to me. But NOT: I was explained … = Меня объяснили … When these verbs take a direct object expressed by a clause or an infinitive phrase, the construction beginning with ‘it’ is used. E.g. They announced to us that the lecture would not take place. It was announced to us that the lecture would not take place. (Нам объявили, что лекция не состоится.) They announced to us when to come. It was announced to us when to come. (Нам объявили, когда придти.) He suggested that she should arrange a meeting. It was suggested that she should arrange a meeting. (Ей предложили организовать встречу.)
Unit 5 The Participle 1. There are two participles in the English language: Participle I (the ‘– ing ’ form) and Participle II (discussed, done). Participle I can have simple, perfect and passive forms. The forms of Participle I correspond to the verb forms with the first element taking the ‘- ing ’ suffix. Compare: When we read his poems, we feel … When he has written the letter, he... Reading his poems, we feel … Having written the letter, he …
As we had been asked to stay, we … The man who is being interviewed is … Having been asked to stay, we … The man being interviewed is …
2. Participle II has only one form: interviewed, done, written. The tenses of Participle I are relative and show whether the action named by the participle took place before the action denoted by the finite verb or was simultaneous with it. E.g. They talked for hours trying to find a way out. (Simultaneousness) Having found a way out, they issued a joint statement. (Priority) 3. Different forms of the participle can have different functions in the sentence. Participle I active and passive can be used as an attribute or an adverbial modifier. E.g. The police investigating the case refused to meet the reporters. (Attribute) The case being investigated is quite complicated. (Attribute) Being asked personal questions he refused to answer. (Adverbial modifier) Perfect active and passive participles can only be adverbial modifiers. E.g. Having avoided the accident he felt relieved. Having been invited for a job interview she was happy. Thus, the equivalents of Russian participles used as attributes are: 1. строящий – The architect building the theatre is very talented. 2. строящийся – The theatre being built is something special. 3. построивший – The architect who built the theater is very talented. NB. Note the word order in structures with participles used as attributes. When the participle is used like an adjective proper, it is placed before the noun. E.g. falling leaves, developed states, English-speaking countries When the participle is used more like a relative clause, it is placed after a noun. E.g. We couldn’t agree on any of the problems discussed. (= the problems that were discussed.) I got the only ticket left. (NOT … the only left ticket.) There can even be a change in meaning if some participles are placed before or after a noun. Compare: A concerned expression = a worried expression The people concerned = the people who are affected (involved) 4. Participles can combine with other words into participle clauses. They can replace relative clauses or adverbial clauses. E.g. Who is the girl dancing with your brother? (= the girl who is dancing …) Anyone touching the wire will get a shock. (= anyone who touches …) Half the people invited to the party didn’t turn up. (= the people who were invited …) Used economically, one tin will last for six weeks. (= If it is used …) Having failed my medical exam, I took up teaching. (= As I had failed …) 5. Misrelated participles. Normally the subject of an adverbial participle clause is the same as the subject of the main clause in the sentence. E.g. My wife had a long talk with Sally, explaining why she didn’t want the children to play together. (My wife had a talk, my wife explained.) It is often a mistake to make sentences in which an adverbial participle clause has a different subject form the main clause. E.g. Looking out of the window, there was a wonderful range of mountains. (This sounds as if the mountains were looking out of the window.) However, ‘misrelated participles’ are normal in some expressions referring to the speaker’s attitude. E.g. Generally speaking, men can run faster than women. Broadly speaking, dogs are more faithful than cats. Considering everything, it wasn’t a bad holiday. 6. A participle clause can have its own subject. This happens most often in formal style. E.g. Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed. (Так как никому больше нечего было сказать, совещание было закрыто.) All the money having been spent, we started looking for work. (Когда все деньги были потрачены, мы начали искать работу.) The subject is often introduced by ‘with’ when the clause expresses accompanying circumstances. E.g. She was coming down the slope with Buck following close behind her. (Она спускалась по холму, а Бак следовал попятам.) How can I do any work, with children making so much noise? (…, когда дети так шумят?) 7. The verbs ‘see, hear, feel, watch, notice’ can be followed by an object plus -ing form or infinitive (without ‘to’). E.g. I heard him go down the stairs. I heard him going down the stairs. The infinitive is used to say that we see or hear the whole of an action or event. The participle is used to suggest that we see an action in progress. E.g. I saw her cross the road. – Я видел, как она перешла улицу. I saw her crossing the road. – Я видел, как она переходила улицу. Participle I passive or Participle II can also be used in this structure. E.g. I heard my name mentioned several times. I watched the tree being cut down. 8. The structure ‘ have (get) something done’ can be used to talk about arranging things to be done by other people. ‘Have something done’ is more formal than ‘get something done.’ E.g. I must have (get) my watch repaired. = I want my watch to be repaired. (Мне нужно починить часы.) I won’t have my house turned into a hotel. = I won’t allow … (Я не позволю, чтобы мой дом превратили в гостиницу.) ‘Get something done’ can also be used to mean ‘finish doing something’. E.g. It’ll take another hour to get the job done.
The Gerund The gerund, like Participle I, can have perfect and passive forms. E.g. The soldier was accused of having betrayed his country. (The perfect form) Nobody likes being criticized. (Passive) He resented having been criticized by the manager. (Perfect Passive) Note that passive and perfect forms mostly occur in written language and in oral communication they are generally avoided. In the examples given above the subject of the main verb is also the subject of the gerund. However, if the actions of the main verb and the gerund are performed by different people the gerund is used with a determiner – a noun or a pronoun. Possessive ‘…’s’ forms are also possible. Compare: I don’t mind saying I was wrong. (I don’t mind, and I say.) I don’t mind you (your) saying I was wrong. (I don’t mind what you say.) She was angry at Lena (Lena’s) trying to tell a lie. In informal style it is more common to use object forms (like ‘me, him, etc.’), especially when they come after verbs. E.g. Do you remember him coming to London?
Unit 6 The Infinitive 1. The infinitive has simple, continuous, passive and perfect forms which correspond to the verb forms. Compare: He is glad that he is attending this conference. He is glad to be attending this conference. He is glad he has attended this conference. He is glad to have attended this conference. He is glad he has been attending this conference for the past few days. He is glad to have been attending this conference for the past few days. He is glad he is invited to attend this conference. He is glad to be invited to attend this conference. He is glad he has been invited to attend this conference. He is glad to have been invited to attend this conference. 2. Like the tenses of other verbals, the tenses of the infinitive are relative and show whether the action named by the infinitive took place before the action denoted by the finite verb or was simultaneous with it. E.g. The boy was proud to be riding his father’s horse. (Simultaneousness) I’m glad to have finished the work in time. (Priority) 3. Perfect infinitives are sometimes used to talk about ‘unreal past’: things that did not happen. E.g. I meant to have telephoned, but I forgot. 4. Negative infinitives are normally made by putting ‘not’ before the infinitive. E.g. Try not to be late. You were silly not to have locked the car. 5. Infinitives are generally used with the particle ‘to’. However, there are exceptions: a. ‘Why’ can be followed by an infinitive without ‘to’. This structure is used to show that the action is unnecessary or pointless. E.g. Why argue with him? He’ll never change his mind. ‘Why not + infinitive without ‘to’ is used to make suggestions. E.g. You are tired. Why not take a holiday? b. ‘Rather than’ is also followed by an infinitive without ‘to’. E.g. Rather than wait any more, I decided to go home by taxi. c. The infinitive is used without ‘to’ after ‘had better’ and ‘would rather’. E.g. It’s late. You had better hurry up. You’d better not wake me up when you get in. I’d rather stay on my own. d. The infinitive is used without ‘to’ after modal verbs and in certain infinitive structures that will be discussed later. 6. Normally, the subject of the whole sentence is also the subject of the infinitive. E.g. Ann will be happy to help you. (Ann will be happy. Ann will help.) However, if the infinitive needs its own subject, it is introduced by ‘for’. E.g. Ann will be happy for the children to help you. Note that the pronouns are used in the object form. E.g. Ann will be happy for them to help you. This structure is very common in English. It is used after adjectives, nouns, pronouns and verbs. ‘It’ can also be the subject of a clause here. It often has the same meaning as a that -clause. Compare: It’s important for the meeting to start in time. It’s important that the meeting should start in time. A that -clause is usually more formal than a for -structure. Examples: a. after adjectives I’m anxious for the party to be a success. She’s eager for us to see her play her part. b. after nouns It’s time for everybody to go to bed. There’s a plan for Jack to spend a year in Japan. c. after pronouns Have you got something for me to do? I must find somewhere for them to live. d. after verbs Ann asked for the designs to be ready on Friday. I can’t wait for them to finish talking. 7. Many verbs in English are followed by ‘object + infinitive’ rather than by a that- clause. E.g. She didn’t want me to go. The most common verbs used in this structure are: advise, allow, ask, beg, command, compel, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, hate, instruct, invite, like, love, mean, order, permit, persuade, recommend, request, teach, tell, want, wish. Some verbs (let, make, have, see, hear, feel, watch, notice) are followed by object + infinitive without ‘to’. E.g. I heard her open the door and come in. Note that only simple active and passive infinitives or participles can be used here. (See Grammar Reference Unit 5). E.g. I want you to invite her. I want her to be invited. If the verbs ‘see’, ‘feel’ and ‘hear’ are used in the meaning of ‘understand’ or ‘people say’ they are followed by a that -clause. E.g. I saw that Mary was dead tired. I felt that she didn’t like the idea. I hear that you’ve come here on business. 8. Many verbs can be used in passive structures with infinitives: subject + passive verb + infinitive. E.g. You are supposed to start work at 8.00 every morning. The most common verbs used here are: see, hear, make, suppose, expect, think, believe, know, consider, say, report, declare. Note that in this structure all infinitives are used with ‘to’, and all infinitive tense forms occur here. E.g. He was made to sign the statement. The strike is reported to have come to an end. The police are said to be investigating the case. Since the infinitive has tense forms expressing simultaneousness and priority and does not have a special form to express relative future, the given structure can refer to a future action only if the main verb of the sentence suggests it. E.g. The talks are expected to be completed tomorrow. If the main verb does not have this meaning, a that-clause is used. E.g. It is reported that they will have solved the problem by next week. (NOT ‘ They are reported to have solved the problem by next week. ’)
9. Other infinitive structures which are quite common in English are as follows. A.
The Russian equivalents are: конечно, обязательно, вероятно, вряд ли. E.g. This journalist is unlikely to have misinterpreted the statement. Вряд ли этот журналист неправильно истолковал заявление. This statement is sure to attract attention. Конечно, это заявление привлечет внимание. B. It is easy to do something. This structure is similar to: Something is easy to do. With a preposition: It is easy to work with him. He is easy to work with. C. To be the first (second, third, last) to do something. E.g. He was the first to say it. – Он первый это сказал. D. There is something (nothing) to do (preposition). E.g. There is nothing to discuss. – Обсуждать нечего. There is something to think about. – Здесь есть, о чем подумать. E. A person (a thing) to do something. E.g. He was not a man to get frightened. – Не такой это был человек, чтобы испугаться. It is the only thing to do. – Это единственное, что можно сделать. Note that the structure ‘noun + infinitive’ can express the idea of obligation. Active and passive forms are both possible. However, a passive infinitive may have a reference to a future action. E.g. I’ve got letters to write. The carpets to be cleaned are in the garage. There is an exception: There is nothing to do here. – Здесь нечем заняться. There is nothing to be done. – Ничего не поделаешь.
Gerund or Infinitive
1. There are verbs that can be followed only by an infinitive, and a group of verbs that can be followed only by a gerund. Verb + infinitive Agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, bother, care, choose, claim, consent, decide, determine (be determined), fail, guarantee, happen, hesitate, hope, learn, long, manage, neglect, offer, plan, prepare (be prepared), pretend, promise, prove, refuse, seem, tend, threaten, trouble, volunteer. The following word combinations are also followed by an infinitive: be about, do one’s best, make an effort, make up one’s mind, set out, take the trouble, etc. Verb + gerund Admit, appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, escape, excuse, forgive, imagine, involve, keep, loathe, mind, miss, postpone, practise, prevent, propose, resent, resist, risk, suggest. The gerund is also used after the expressions: can’t stand, can’t help, it’s no use/good, it’s worth. 2. The following verbs can take a gerund or an infinitive without any change in meaning: begin, start, continue, cease, can’t bear, intend, prefer. The verbs ‘advise, allow, permit, forbid’ take an infinitive in the structure ‘verb + object + infinitive’, and a gerund when the object is not mentioned. E.g. I wouldn’t advise taking the car. There is nowhere to park. I wouldn’t advise you to take the car. … 3. Some verbs take a gerund or an infinitive with a change in meaning. Remember and forget ‘Remember (not forget) + gerund’ refers back to the past. E.g. I still remember buying my first bicycle. – …помню, как покупал … I’ll never forget going to the mountains. – …никогда не забуду, как ходил ‘Remember (not forget) + infinitive’ refers to forward in time. E.g. Don’t forget (Remember) to send Mary a postcard. – Не забудь... Go on ‘Go on + gerund’ means ‘continue’. E.g. She went on talking about her illness until we went to sleep. – …продолжала говорить … ‘Go on + infinitive’ refers to a change in activity. E.g. He told us about the internal situation in the country and then went on to speak about some international problems. – … а далее он говорил о некоторых международных проблемах. Try ‘Try + gerund’ is used to talk about making an attempt to achieve some aim. E.g. I tried sending her flowers, writing letters, giving her presents, but she wouldn’t speak to me. (My aim was to make her speak to me, while ‘sending, writing, giving’ were the ways to achieve it.) ‘Try + infinitive’ is used to talk about making an effort to do something difficult. E.g. I tried to change the wheel, but my hands were too cold. Mean ‘Mean + infinitive’ is used in the sense of ‘intend’. E.g. I mean to say that it’s too problematic. – Я хочу сказать, что … ‘Mean + gerund’ implies ‘involving/having a result’. E.g. If you want to pass an exam it will mean studying hard. – … это будет означать, что нужно … Stop ‘Stop + gerund’ refers to an end in some activity. E.g. I couldn’t solve the problem and stopped thinking about it. – … перестал думать о ней. ‘Stop + infinitive’ refers to a purpose. E.g. I was tired and stopped to rest. – … остановился, чтобы отдохнуть.
Regret ‘Regret + infinitive’ is used mostly in announcements of bad news. E.g. We regret to say that we are unable to help you. ‘Regret + gerund’ refers back to the past, meaning that one is sorry to have done something. E.g. I regret leaving school at 14. It was a bad mistake. Used … Remember the difference in the following structures. We used to go there on holiday. – Мы обычно (часто, бывало) ездили туда отдыхать. We are/got used to going there on holiday. – Мы привыкли ездить туда отдыхать.
Unit 7 Conditionals, Wishes, Regrets, Subjunctives
1. When we talk about unreal or imaginary situations in the present or future, we use the second conditional – a past tense in the if -clause and ‘ would + infinitive’ in the main clause. Continuous forms are also used here. E.g. She would be perfectly happy if she had a car. If they weren’t so busy they would be having a holiday now. In the if- clause ‘were’ is often used instead of ‘was’. This is common both in formal and informal styles. E.g. If I were rich, I would spend a lot of time traveling. To talk about unreal past situations we use the third conditional – a past perfect tense in the if -clause, and ‘would + perfect infinitive’ in the main clause. E.g. If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam. If one part of the sentence refers to the past and the other to the present or future, mixed conditionals are used. E.g. If you had told me the truth earlier, I would know what to do now. If he were more intelligent, he wouldn’t have made such a mistake. 2. In unreal conditional sentences we can use ‘could’ to mean ‘would be able to’ or ‘might’ to mean ‘would perhaps …’ E.g. If I had another $1,500 I could buy a good car. If you asked me nicely, I might get you an ice-cream. 3. We can suggest that something is unlikely by using ‘should’ in the if -clause. The structure ‘ if … happen to …’ has a similar meaning. The Russian equivalents for these cases are: ‘если вдруг, случайно, все же, если окажется.’ E.g. If you should meet Peter, tell him he owes me a letter. – Если вдруг (случайно) встретишь Питера, скажи ему … ‘Would’ is not normally used in the main clause in these structures. E.g. If you should be late, we will have to start without you. 4. The verb ‘were’ can also be used to express imaginary future events which are not very probable. E.g. If the boss were to come in now, we would be in real trouble. – Если бы начальник вдруг вошел … It can also be used to make a suggestion sound less direct, and so more polite. E.g. If you were to move your chair a bit, we could all sit down. This structure is not used with state verbs. E.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you. (NOT: ‘If I were to know …’) 5. The verb ‘was/were’ is used in the structure ‘ If it wasn’t/weren’t for …’ which is similar in meaning to ‘but for …’ E.g. If it wasn’t/weren’t for his wife’s money he’d never be a director. = But for his wife’s money he’d never be …- Если бы не деньги его жены … To talk about the past we use ‘If it hadn’t been for …’ E.g. If it hadn’t been for your help I don’t know what I’d have done. = But for your help I don’t know what I’d have done. 6. In formal and literary styles ‘if’ can be dropped and an auxiliary verb put before the subject. This happens mostly with ‘were, had, should’. E.g. Were she my daughter, I would lock her up. Had I realized what you intended to do, I would have got out of the deal. Should you change your mind, let me know. Negatives are not contracted in these structures. E.g. Had we not changed our reservation, we’d all have been killed in the crash. 7. Conjunctions introducing conditional clauses are: ‘if, suppose (supposing), on condition that, provided (providing) that’. E.g. Suppose (supposing) he found out the truth, what would he do then? You can be present at the meeting on condition (provided) that you don’t interfere in the discussion. For a negative condition we can use ‘unless’ which has the meaning of ‘if … not’, though it is more emphatic. E.g. He wouldn’t have come unless you had invited him. = He wouldn’t have come if you hadn’t invited him. ‘Unless’ is especially useful for introducing clauses which contain other negative elements. E.g. Don’t ask me to explain unless you really don’t understand it.
8. Wishes and regrets are expressed by structures with ‘I wish’ and ‘if only’. Here past tenses are used to talk about the present and past perfect to refer to the past. E.g. If only I knew more people! I wish I knew more people. If only she had told me the truth! I wish she had told me the truth. ‘ Would’ is very common in that-clauses after ‘wish’. It usually expresses regret, dissatisfaction, impatience or irritation that somebody will keep doing something, or won’t do something. E.g. I wish she would be quiet. I wish you wouldn’t make that stupid noise. ‘ Wish … would’ can be used like an order or a critical request. Compare: I wish you wouldn’t drive so fast. (= Please don’t drive so fast.) I wish you didn’t drive so fast. (= I’m sorry you drive so fast.) I wish you wouldn’t work on Sundays. (= I’d like you to stop.) I wish you didn’t work on Sundays. (= It’s a pity you work on Sundays.) 9. ‘Would rather’ is close in meaning with ‘I wish’. After ‘would rather’ past tenses are used to talk about the present and future, and past perfect to refer to the past. E.g. I’d rather you went home right now. I’d rather you came next week. I’d rather you hadn’t done that last week. 10. Subjunctives. The subjunctive is a special form of the verb, mostly ‘should + infinitive’. ‘Should’, however, can be omitted. E.g. The chairperson demanded that everybody should be quiet. The chairperson demanded that everybody be quiet. Most subjunctive forms are formal and are used after the verbs: suggest, propose, insist, demand, order, request, recommend, arrange, advise and certain adjectives: essential, necessary, advisable, important, desirable, odd, strange, etc. E.g. Why do you insist that she should be told the truth? It is essential that every child should have the same educational opportunities. Note that the English subjunctive structures correspond to the Russian constructions with the past tense. Compare: It is important for you to be present when we sign the papers. Тебе важно присутствовать, когда мы будем подписывать бумаги. It is important that you should be present when we sign the papers. Важно, чтобы вы присутствовали, когда мы будем подписывать бумаги.
Unit 8 Modal Auxiliaries
Can / Could Can and could are used to talk about ability, to ask for and give permission, and to make requests and offers. E.g. Can you speak French? (ability) You can stop work early today. (permission) Can I have some more tea? (request) Can I help you? (offer) ‘Could’ is used to express ‘general ability’ – to say that somebody could do something at any time, whenever she/he wanted. ‘Was/were able’ is also possible here. E.g. She could read when she was five. (OR: ‘She was able to read …’) ‘Could’ is not normally used to say that someone managed to do something on one occasion. Instead, ‘was/were able’ or ‘managed’ is used. E.g. I was able (managed) to find a really nice dress in the sale. (NOT: I could find.) However, in negative clauses, and with negative or limiting adverbs like ‘only’ and ‘hardly’, ‘could’ is used to refer to one occasion. E.g. I managed to find the street, but I couldn’t find her house. I could only get one of his books. She could hardly believe her eyes. This structure is also used to criticize people about not doing things. E.g. You could ask me before you borrow my car. ‘Could + perfect infinitive’ is used to express the same meaning in the past. E.g. You could have told me you were getting married. ‘Can (can’t)’ and ‘could (couldn’t)’ are used to talk about permission and about things that are (are not) allowed by rules and laws. E.g. Can one park on double yellow lines on Sundays? You can’t park in front of a doorway. In talking about the past ‘could’ is used to say that somebody had permission to do something at any time (general permission), but ‘could’ is not used to talk about permission for one particular action in the past. E.g. When I was a child, I could watch TV when I wanted to. Yesterday evening, Peter was allowed to watch TV for an hour. (NOT … could watch …) However, ‘could not’ is used to talk about one particular action that was not allowed. E.g. Yesterday Peter could not watch TV because he was naughty.
May and Might ‘May’ and ‘might’ can both be used to ask for permission. They are more formal than ‘can’ and ‘could’. E.g. May I borrow your car? – No, I’m afraid you may not. I wonder if I might have a little more cheese. (very formal) ‘Might’ can be used to criticize. ‘Might + perfect infinitive’ is used to talk about the past. E.g. You might phone Mother. She is so worried. – Ты мог бы и позвонить маме. She might have told me she was going to stay out all night. – Она могла бы и сказать мне, что собирается … Must and Have to In affirmative sentences, we can use ‘must’ to say what is necessary, and to give strong advice and orders to ourselves and others. E.g. Plants must get enough light and water if they are to grow properly. I really must stop smoking. You must be here before eight o’clock tomorrow. ‘Must’ is common in emphatic sentences. E.g. You really must come and see us soon. In sentences about obligation with ‘must’, the obligation comes form the speaker. To talk about obligation that comes from ‘outside’ (for instance a regulation, or an order from somebody else), we usually prefer ‘have to’. E.g. I have to work from nine to five. In my job I have to travel a lot. In questions, people use ‘must’ to ask about what the hearer thinks is necessary. E.g. Must I clean all the rooms? Why must you always leave the door open? ‘Must not’ is used to say that things should not be done, or to tell people not to do things. E.g. The government mustn’t expect people to work for no money. You mustn’t open this parcel until Christmas Day. Note that ‘mustn’t’ is not used to say that things are unnecessary. This idea is expressed by ‘do not need to’ or ‘do not have to’. E.g. You don’t need (don’t have) to get a visa to go to Scotland. NB. There is a certain difference in the use of ‘must’ and ‘have to’ in British and American English. In American English ‘have to’ is more common, particularly in speech. E.g. Must I clean all the rooms? (BrE) Do I have to clean all the rooms? (AmE) Plants must get enough light and water. (BrE) Plants have to get enough light and water. (AmE)
Need When ‘need’ is followed by another verb, it can have forms either of an ordinary verb or of a modal auxiliary verb. If it is an ordinary verb it has ‘-s’ in the third person singular and is followed by an infinitive with ‘to’. Questions and negatives are made with ‘do’. It is used to express general necessity or its absence. It means ‘require’. E.g. Everybody needs to rest sometimes. Do we need to reserve seats on the train? You don’t need to pay for emergency calls in most countries. ‘Will need to’ can be used to talk about future obligations, and give advice for the future. It can make orders and instructions sound less direct. E.g. You will need to fill in this form before you see the Inspector. ‘Need’ as a modal auxiliary is mostly used in negative sentences. E.g. You needn’t reserve seats. There’ll be plenty of room. ‘Need not + perfect infinitive’ is used to say that somebody did something, but that was unnecessary – a waste of time. On the other hand, if we say that somebody ‘did not need to do something’, we say that it was not necessary and most probably it wasn’t done. E.g. I needn’t have watered the flowers. Just after I finished it started raining. It started raining, so I didn’t need to water the flowers. Should and Ought to ‘Should’ and ‘ought to’ are very similar in meaning and can replace each other, though ‘should’ is much more frequent. E.g. They ought to be more sensible, shouldn’t they? They are both used to talk about obligation and duty and to give advice. They are less strong than ‘must’. E.g. People should drive more carefully. (More polite than ‘People must …’) ‘Should’ and ‘ought to’ can be used with perfect infinitives to talk about unfulfilled obligations in the past. ‘Must’ is not used like this. E.g. You should have been nicer to Annie. (NOT: You must have been …) Shall ‘Shall’ is used in questions with ‘I/we’ to ask for instructions or decisions, to offer services and make suggestions. E.g. What time shall we come and see you? Shall we go out for a meal? In contracts and other legal documents, ‘shall’ is often used with third-person subjects to refer to obligations and duties. E.g. The hirer shall be responsible for the maintenance of the vehicle. Be + Infinitive This structure is used in formal style to talk about plans and arrangements, especially when they are official. E.g. The President is to visit Nigeria next month. We are to get a 10% wage rise in June. I felt nervous because I was soon to leave home for the first time. A perfect infinitive can be used to show that a planned event did not take place. E.g. I was to have started work last week, but I changed my mind. ‘Be + passive infinitive’ is often used in notices and instructions. E.g. This cover is not to be removed. Note that this structure exists only in present and past tenses, not present perfect or future.
Unit 9 Emphasis
1. Emphasis is a way to strengthen a particular word or an expression in a sentence. In oral speech it is achieved by giving words extra stress. E.g. Jane phoned me yesterday. (Not somebody else.) Jane phoned me yesterday. (She didn’t come to see me.) Jane phoned me yesterday. (She didn’t phone you.) etc. Speakers often stress auxiliary verbs. This can make the whole sentence sound more emphatic. E.g. It was a nice party! I am telling the truth – you must believe me! In emphatic sentences without auxiliary verbs we add ‘do’ to carry the stress. E.g. She did like it. Do sit down! If he does decide to come, let me know. 2. Besides giving words extra stress, speakers often use certain words, such as ‘so, really, such’ to show emphasis. E.g. Thank you so much. It was such a lovely party. I really enjoyed it. Question words can be emphasized by adding ‘ever’ or ‘on earth’, ‘very … indeed’, especially in informal situations. E.g. Why ever did he marry her? He followed her wherever she went. What on earth is she doing here? He was driving very fast indeed. 3. To give some words more importance speakers often place them to an unusual position. This kind of emphasis is called ‘fronting’. It is possible to begin an affirmative clause with an object. This kind of fronting is common in informal speech, though it is also possible in more formal style. E.g. Strange people they are! People like that I just can’t stand. This question we have already discussed at some length. Fronted adjectives and adverbs are possible in structures with ‘as’ or ‘though’. E.g. Young as I was, I realized what was happening. Fast though she drove, she could not catch them. Much as/though I respect your point of view, I can’t agree. 4. We can emphasize particular words in a sentence by using cleft (divided) sentences. They are useful in writing (because we cannot use intonation for emphasis in written language), but they are also common in speech. a. The words to be emphasized are joined to a relative clause by ‘is/was’ and an expression like ‘the person who, the place where, the day when, the reason why, what (= the thing that). E.g. On Tuesday Jane revealed this information to help the investigation. The person who revealed this information was Jane. What Jane revealed was this information. The day when Jane revealed this information was Tuesday. The reason why Jane revealed this was to help the investigation. What Jane did was to reveal this information. Note that a what -clause is normally considered singular. b. Preparatory ‘it’ is often used in cleft sentences. In this case, the words to be emphasized are usually joined to the relative clause by ‘that’ (or sometimes by ‘who’). Compare: E.g. My secretary sent the bill to Mr Harding yesterday. It was my secretary who/that sent the bill. It was the bill that my secretary sent to Mr Harding. It was Mr Harding that my secretary sent the bill to yesterday. It was yesterday that my secretary sent the bill to Mr Harding. Negatives are also possible here. E.g. It wasn’t I who sent the Bill to Mr Harding. Note the forms of the verb ‘be’ in this structure. E.g. It was the students who were late. It is I who am responsible. It is you who are in the wrong. Time expressions can be emphasized with ‘It was not until …’ and ‘It was only when …’ E.g. It was not until I met you that I learned what friendship is. It was only when I read her letter that I realized what was happening. 5. Negative adverbs and adverbial expressions are emphasized if they are put at the beginning of a sentence. They are usually followed by an ‘auxiliary verb + subject’. These sentences are mostly rather formal. Expressions and words used here: ‘under no circumstances, at no time, not until, no sooner … than, hardly … when, hardly ever, seldom, rarely, little, never’ and expressions with ‘only’ (only after, only then, only recently, not only … but, etc.) E.g. Under no circumstances can you borrow money. At no time was the President aware of danger. Not until much later did she learn what had happened. No sooner had I put the phone down than it rang again. Hardly had I got my breath back when it was time to go again. Little did he realize the danger. Not only did we lose our money, but we were nearly killed. 6. Inversion is also used in negative sentences containing the structures ‘not … nor’. These sentences, too, are formal or literary. E.g. I don’t know much about this affair, nor do I care. The negative meaning in the first part of the sentence can be implied. E.g. We have many enemies, nor can we be sure of our friends. Unit 10 Modal Verbs of Deduction May and Might ‘May’ and ‘might’ are often used to say there is a chance that something is true or that there is a possibility of it happening. E.g. I think Labour are going to win. – You may be right. (= It’s possible that you are right.) Peter might phone. If he does, ask him to ring later. In this meaning ‘might’ is not used as a past form of ‘may’: both ‘may’ and ‘might’ are used to talk about the present or future. ‘Might’ suggests a smaller chance than ‘may’, it is used when people think that something is possible but not very likely. Compare: I may go to London tomorrow. (perhaps 50% chance) I might go to London tomorrow. (perhaps 30% chance) ‘May’ is not normally used in direct questions about probability. E.g. Are you likely to go camping this summer? (NOT May you go …?) But ‘may’ is possible in negative questions about probability, which is very formal, or in indirect questions after ‘Do you think’. E.g. May he not be making a big mistake? (very formal) Do you think he may go camping this summer? Note the difference between ‘may (might) not’ and ‘cannot’. ‘May (might) not’ means ‘It is possible that … not …’ while ‘cannot’ means ‘It is not possible that’. E.g. It may (might) not be true. (= It’s possible that it is not true.) It can’t be true. (= It is not possible that it is true.) ‘Might’ (but not ‘may’) can have a conditional meaning (=would perhaps). E.g. If you went to bed for an hour you might feel better. (= perhaps you would feel better.) To say that it is possible that something happened or was true in the past, the structure ‘may/might + perfect infinitive’ is used. E.g. Polly is very late. She may (might) have missed the train. (It is possible that she missed the train.)
Can and Could ‘Can’ is used in questions and negative sentences to talk about the logical possibility that something is true or something is happening. E.g. There’s the bell. Who can it be? – It can’t be your mother. She’s in Rome. ‘Can’ is not usually possible in affirmative sentences with this meaning. Instead, ‘could, may or might’ are used. E.g. Where’s Sarah? – She could/may/might be at Joe’s place. (NOT She can be) But ‘can’ is possible in affirmative sentences with words like ‘only, hardly’, which have a limiting or negative meaning. E.g. Who’s that at the door? – It can only be a postman. The structure ‘can/could’ + perfect infinitive’ is used to talk about possibility in the past. E.g. Where can she have gone? – She can’t have gone to school. It’s Sunday. ‘Could’ can also be used to say that something was possible but did not happen (a conditional use). E.g. That was a bad place to go skiing. You could have broken your leg. Must ‘Must’ can be used to express the conclusion that something is certain. E.g. You must be joking. ‘Must’ is not normally used in questions and negative clauses. ‘Can’ is used instead. (NB. However, the form ‘That mustn’t be …’ is possible in American English.) E.g. That lady can’t be his mother – she isn’t old enough. There is somebody at the door. Who can it be? (NOT ‘Who must it be?’) But in question tags ‘mustn’t’ is normal. E.g. It must be a nice place, mustn’t it? ‘Must + perfect infinitive’ is used to express certainty about the past. E.g. Julie is late. She must have missed the train. Will ‘Will’ can express certainty or confidence (greater than ‘must’) about present or future situations. E.g. Don’t phone them now. They will be having dinner. ‘Will + perfect infinitive’ can express certainty and confidence about the past. E.g. We can’t go and see them now. They will have gone to bed. Doubt about an action not taking place To express strong or very strong doubt about an action not taking place (неужели кто-то делает/не сделал что-то; не может быть, чтобы кто-то не сделал что-то) we use the expression ‘to fail to do something’. It is generally used with action verbs. With state verbs negative prefixes ‘dis-’ or ‘mis-’ or antonyms are used. E.g. She can’t have failed to recognize him. – Не может быть, чтобы она его не узнала. She can’t have mistrusted him. – Не может быть, чтобы она ему не доверяла. Reported Speech (Advanced Points) 1. Reporting past tenses. In indirect speech, a speaker’s present perfect and past tenses are often reported using past perfect tenses because the reporter’s point of view is not the same as the original speaker’s point of view. E.g. “I saw Penny at the theatre a couple of days ago.” - In his letter he said he had seen Penny a couple of days before. However, when the reporter sees the past events from the same point of view as the original speaker, past perfect tenses are not used. E.g. “I enjoyed my trip to Denmark.” - We were glad to hear he enjoyed his trip to Denmark. The past perfect tense is generally not used in reported speech when the speaker means to say when exactly an event took place or to denote a point in time. It normally occurs in clauses of time after ‘when’ and ‘since’. E.g. “ When I got home, I found I had lost my watch. ” He said when he got home he found he had lost his watch. “ I’ve known him since he came to this city. ” She said she had known him since he came to this city.
2. Reporting present and future tenses. If somebody talked about a situation that has not changed – if the original speaker’s present and future are still present and future – a reporter can choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them. E.g. “It will be windy tomorrow.” The forecast said it will/would be windy tomorrow. The original speaker’s tenses are changed if we do not agree with what was said, if we are not certain it is true, or if we wish to make it clear that the information comes from the original speaker, not from ourselves. E.g. “I’m thirteen!” Did you hear that? She said she was thirteen! “The profits are higher than forecast.” He announced that the profits were higher than forecast. 3. Modal verbs in reported speech. The modal verbs ‘ should, could, might, ought, must, needn’t’ are usually unchanged after past reporting verbs. E.g. “ It might be too late.” – She said it might be too late. “ It must be late. I must go.” – She said it must be late and she must go. “ You needn’t pretend to be sorry.” – I said he needn’t pretend to be sorry. 4. Conditionals in reported speech. Conditional sentences referring to real situations are reported using past tenses. E.g. “If we don’t miss the train we’ll get there in time.” He said if we didn’t miss the train we would get there in time. In sentences referring to unreal situations the tenses usually remain unchanged. E.g. “If I had enough money I would buy that house.” He said if he had enough money he would buy that house.
Supplement Unit 1 Business Maze. Running a private school. (Situation cards)
|
