The Continuity of English

 

To be sure, our collective agreement on standards of language and literature is never more than approximate and is always undergoing redefinition and change. Things could hardly be otherwise, given the varied constitution of the English-speaking community, the changing social background, and the insistence of English-speakers that they must be left to decide these matters on their own, without the intervention of official commissions or academies. It is not surprising that the reference points that we depend on to maintain the continuity of the language should often be controversial, even within a single community, and even less so that different national communities should have different ideas as to who counts as authority or what kinds of texts should be relevant to defining the common core of English words. The most we can ask of our common linguistic heritage is that it gives us a general format for adapting the language to new needs and for reinterpreting its significance from one time and place to another.

This is the challenge posed by the triumph of English. Granted, there is no threat to the hegemony of English as a worldwide medium for practical communication is a certainty that the nations of the English-speaking community will continue to use the various forms of English to communicate with each other, as well as with the hundreds of millions of people who speak English as a second language (and who in fact outnumber the native speakers of the language by a factor of two or three to one). And with the growth of travel and trade and of media like the Internet, the number of English-speakers is sure to continue to increase.

But none of this guarantees the continuing unity of English as a means of cultural expression. What is striking about the accelerating spread of English over the past two centuries is not so much the number of speakers that the language has acquired, but the remarkable variety of the cultures and com­munities who use it. The heterogeneity of the linguistic community is evident not just in the emergence of the rich new literatures of Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, but also in the literatures of what linguists sometimes call the "inner circle" of the English-speaking world—nations like Britain, the United States, Australia, and Canada—where the language is being asked to describe a much wider range of experience than ever before, particularly on behalf of groups who until recently have been largely excluded or margin­alized from the collective conversation of the English-speaking world.

Not surprisingly, the speakers of the "new Englishes" use the language with different voices and different rhythms and bring to it different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The language of a writer like Chinua Achebe reflects the influence not just of Shakespeare and Wordsworth but of prov­erbs and other forms of discourse drawn from West African oral traditions. Indian writers like R. K. Narayan and Salman Rushdie ground their works not just in the traditional English-language canon but in Sanskrit classics like the epic Ramayana. The continuing sense that all English-speakers are engaged in a common discourse depends on the linguistic community's being able to accommodate and absorb these new linguistic and literary influences, as it has been able to do in the past.

In all parts of the linguistic community, moreover, there are questions posed by the new media of discourse. Over the past hundred years, the pri­macy of print has been challenged first by the growth of film, recordings, and the broadcast media, and more recently by the remarkable growth of the Internet, each of which has had its effects on the language. With film and the rest, we have begun to see the emergence of spoken standards that co­exist with the written standard of print, not in the form of a standardized English pronunciation—if anything, pronunciation differences among the communities of the English-speaking world have become more marked over the course of the century—but rather in the use of words, expressions, and rhythms that are particular to speech (there is no better example of this than the universal adoption of the particle okay). And the Internet has had the effect of projecting what were previously private forms of written commu­nication, like the personal letter, into something more like models of public discourse, but with a language that is much more informal than the tradi­tional discourse of the novel or newspaper.

It is a mistake to think that any of these new forms of discourse will wholly replace the discourse of print (the Internet, in particular, has shown itself to be an important vehicle for marketing and diffusing print works with much greater efficiency than has ever been possible before). It seems reasonable to assume that a hundred years from now the English-speaking world will still be at heart a community of readers—and of readers of books, among other things. And it is likely, too, that the English language will still be at heart a means of written expression, not just for setting down air schedules and trade statistics, but for doing the kind of cultural work that we have looked for literature to do for us in the past; a medium, that is, for poetry, criticism, history, and fiction. But only time will tell if English will remain a single language—if in the midst of all the diversity, cultural and communi­cative, people will still be able to discern a single "English literature" and a characteristic English-language frame of mind.

 

 

CONTENTS

LECTURE 1. ETHICS AND TRANSLATION 1

1. Ethics as a Science. 1

2. Ethics in Translation. 4

2.1. Who are translators?. 4

2.2. Reliability and Speed in Translation. 10

2.3.Moral Issues in Translation Business. 14

LECTURE 2. THE BEGINNING OF TRANSLATION 19

1. The Ancient Chinese Schools. 19

2. The Academy of Jundishapur 20

3. The Passage to India. 21

4. The House of Wisdom.. 22

5. The School of Toledo. 23

6. The International Translation Day. 26

LECTURE 3. LEARNING TO BE A TRANSLATOR 30

1. The Translator's Charter (approved by the Congress at Dubrovnik in 1963, and amended in Oslo on July 9, 1994) 34

1.1. General Obligations of the Translator 34

1.2. Rights of the Translator 35

2. Translators’ Societies and Unions. 36

3. National Organizations and the International Federation of Translators. 37

4. Language Interpreter and Translator Code of Professional Conduct 39

5. The Translator’s Responsibilities. 41

LECTURE 4. TRANSLATION RULES AND ETHICS 43

1. Ethics Is a Professional Concern. 44

2. The Notion of ‘Ours’ and ‘Theirs’ in the Work of a Translator 45

3. Translation Is Always an Improvement 49

4. The Sources of the Translation Improvement 50

5. Professional Detachment Is Attachment to a Profession. 52

LECTURE 5. ETHICS AND PROFESSIONALISM IN TRANSLATION 54

1. Accuracy in Translation. 55

2. The True Professional 56

3. Access to Private Information. 58

4. Handling Clients and After Service. 61

LECTURE 6. TRANSLATION AND TECHNOLOGY 65

1. The Role of Technology in the Profession of a Translator 66

2. Translation Memory Programs. 70

3. Co-existence but on What Terms?. 73

LECTURE 7. THE TRANSLATOR’S INTELLIGENCE 74

1. The Translator's Memory. 75

2. The Representational and Procedural Memory. 77

3.The Translators' Learning Styles. 80

3.1. The Varieties of Learning Styles. 82

4. The Processing of Information by Different Learners. 89

5. The Response. 91

LECTURE 8. THE THEORETICAL COMPONENTS IN INTERPRETER AND TRANSLATOR TRAINING 95

1. The Role of Training in Interpretation and Translation. 96

2. The Components of Translation Expertise. 99

3. The Variability of Training Requirements. 101

3.1. The Initial Training for Newcomers to Translation. 101

3.2. Further Training for Practicing Interpreters and Translators. 102

LECTURE 9. DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING 103

1. Comprehension in Translation. 106

2. Translation and Comprehension of Specialized Texts. 107

2.1. The Importance of Terminology Knowledge. 110

3. Legal and Court Interpreting. 116

4. Other Types of Interpreting. 118

LECTURE 10. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH AND ENGLISHNESS 121

1. The Persistence of English. 122

2. The Emergence of the English Language. 125

3.Dictionaries and Rules. 129

4. The Diffusion of English. 132

5. English and Englishness. 136

6. The Features of "Standard English". 139

7. The Continuity of English. 143

CONTENTS……………………………………………………146

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………… 150