What Is Politics?If we try to define ‘politics’ more formally and precisely, we run into the problems. One of the problems is associated with whether we are talking about politics as a human activity or politics as an academic activity – or, in American terminology, politics or political science. The search for truth about how human beings exercise power might be thought to be completely separate from exercising that power. But in practice political ideas are some of the most important weapons in the politician’s armoury. Attempts to ignore this are either naive or a deliberate attempt to present a controversial political ideology as an indisputable political fact. In this light it is worth considering rather critically the standard academic definitions of politics and of power.
The definitions of politics and power show very considerable differences, reflecting the viewpoint of the author. Most political scientists’ definitions of politics are much broader in scope than the first, dictionary, definition which focuses on the state. In effect they support the view suggested above: that politics is about the social exercise of power, rather than just the state. However, this may reflect the natural ‘imperialism’ of academics on behalf of their own discipline. Sociologists might argue that ‘man moving man’ would be more appropriate as a definition of their concerns. Consider also, though, the unit of analysis, in terms of which these definitions are couched. Weber, Lasswell and de Jouvenal appear to be thinking primarily in terms of individuals exercising power, Crick and Parsons focus upon whole societies, the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary talks about governments, whilst Poulantzas views classes as the primary political ‘actor’. This reflects a split between individualistic and collectivist theories. Another contrast in these definitions is that between what has been described as ‘zero-sum’ and ‘non-zero-sum’ theories of politics. This terminology is derived from the mathematical theory of games. A zero-sum game is the usual sort of game, such as chess, in which a win by one player is, by definition, a loss on the part of the opposing player or players. There is a fixed amount of ‘winnings’ which means that the gains of one side are, by definition, losses to the other. Obviously many politicians, and political scientists, see politics this way. Thus Weber and Lasswell both seem to suggest that the political success of one individual may well be at the expense of others who oppose them. It is also a feature of Marxist theories, like that of Poulantzas, that the interests of classes are opposed and are gained at the expense of each other. However, not all games are of this sort – for instance in collective make-believe children’s games, new themes introduced by one player can enrich the enjoyment of the game for everyone. There is not a fixed amount of ‘winnings’, but by cooperation both sides can achieve more. In a similar way, Parsons explicitly argues that, by cooperation, different groups in society can each obtain greater benefits than would be the case if they work in competition. This view seems to fit well with contemporary emphasis in many parts of the Western world on the practice of mainstream politicians seeking to build coalitions, which involves compromise. Thus different theories place radically different emphasis on consensus (agreement) and conflict in their theories of politics. Today ‘politics’ encompasses a broad range of situations in which people’s objectives vary, but in which they work together to achieve those aims they have in common as well as competing where aims conflict. Both cooperation and competition may involve bargaining, argument and coercion. Politics may often be more an art than a science, and the art of politics may often be to see the potential for alliances rather than antagonisms amongst differing groups.
1 Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following words and expressions. Weapon, armoury, controversial, indisputable, scope, on behalf of, gain, antagonism.
2 Translate words and word combinations from Ukrainian into English and use them in your own sentences. Застосовувати силу, одностайність (консенсус),коаліція, прагнення, ведення переговорів, стримування. 3 Complete the sentences with words or phrases from the list. Consensus, objectives, exercise of power, coercion, political scientists 1. Different _____ ______ have different views on the best way to define politics. 2. For sociologists who study conflict and power, the important question is who benefits from the _____ __ ______. 3. In order to keep the rulers accountable for their actions and to build __________, the civil society must play an active political role. 4. Different nations may have different social and economic ________. 5. In human-centered systems, the exercise of control by one person or entity over another person (natural or legal) is usually based on a combination of incentives and _______.
4 Complete the sentences. 1. Sociologists might... 2. Today ‘politics’ encompasses... 3. Both cooperation and competition... 4. But in practice political... 5. Most political scientists’ definitions... 6. This view seems to fit... 7. A zero-sum game... 5 Comprehension questions. 1. What problem does definition of the term ‘politics’ create? 2. How do authors’ viewpoints influence the definition of politics? 3. How do definitions of political scientists differ from those of sociologists? 4. What situations does politics include? 5. How are cooperation and competition related to politics?
6 Say if the following statements are true according to the text. 1. In American terminology politics and political science mean the same. 2. Exercising the power and analysis of this process are separate disciplines. 3. Political science is concerned with the study of power and politics. 4. Politics can be seen as a type of game. 5. People should work together to achieve aims in politics. 6. Competition is not part of politics.
Project Work. Work individually or in pairs.Use the table in the text to define ‘politics’ and ‘power’. What definition do you agree with? Explain your point of view. Create your own definition of terms ‘politics’ and ‘power’. Prepare a 3-5 minutes talk to present your definitions to the class.
UNIT 2
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