Traditional Systems of Classification

Before examining how different systems have been classified, it is necessary to reflect on both – what is being classified, and why such classifications have been undertaken. First, what is ‘government’, and how do governments differ from ‘political systems’ or ‘regimes’? ‘Government’ refers to the institutional processes through which collective and usually binding decisions are made. A political system or regime, on the other hand, is a broader term that encompasses not only the mechanisms of government and the institutions of the state, but also the structures and processes through which these interact with the larger society. A political system is, in effect, a subsystem of the larger social system. It is a ‘system’ in that there are interrelationships related to the distribution of power, wealth and resources in society.

A regime is therefore a ‘system of rule’ that endures despite the fact that governments come and go. Whereas governments can be changed by elections, through dynastic succession, as a result of coup d’etats and so on, regimes can only be changed by military intervention from without or by some kind of revolutionary upheaval from within.

The interest in classifying political systems stems from two sources. First, classification is an essential aid to the understanding of politics and government. The second purpose of classification is to facilitate evaluation rather than analysis. In other words, understanding is closely tied up with normative judgments: questions about ‘what is’ are linked to questions about ‘what should be’. All systems of classification have their drawbacks, however. As with all analytical devices, there is a danger of simplification. The classification of regimes under the same heading draws attention to the similarities that they share, but there is a risk that the differences that divide them will be ignored or disguised. A related problem is a possible failure to see that a phenomenon may have different meanings in different contexts. For instance, in Japan and throughout East Asia, ‘the state’ may be different in kind and significance from ‘the state’ as generally understood in the context of the West classification process. Finally, all systems of classifications have the drawback that they are necessarily state-bound: they treat individual countries as coherent or independent entities in their own right. Although this approach is by no means invalid, it is now widely viewed as incomplete in the light of the phenomenon of globalization.

Since the late 1980s, the regime classification industry has been in a limbo. Older categories, particularly the ‘three worlds’ division, were certainly redundant, but the political contours of the new world were far from clear. The image of a ‘world of liberal democracies’ suggested the superiority of a specifically western model of development, based perhaps especially on the USA, and it implied that values such as individualism, rights and choice are universally applicable. One result of this was a failure to recognize the significance, for instance, of Islamic and Confucian political forms.

However, one of the difficulties of establishing a new system of classification is that there is no consensus about the criteria upon which such a system should be based. No system of classification relies on a single all-important factor. Nevertheless, particular systems have tended to prioritize different sets of criteria. Among the parameters most commonly used are the following.

● Who rules? Is political participation confined to an elite body or privileged group, or does it encompass the entire population?

● How is compliance achieved? Is government obeyed as a result of the exercise or threat of force or through bargaining and compromise?

● Is government power centralized or fragmented? What kinds of check and balance operate in the political system?

● How is government power acquired and transferred? Is a regime open and competitive, or is it monolithic?

● What is the balance between the state and the individual? What is the distribution of rights and responsibilities between government and citizens?

● What is the level of material development? How materially affluent is the society, and how equally is wealth distributed?

● How is economic life organized? Is the economy geared to the market or to planning, and what economic role does government play?

● How stable is a regime? Has the regime survived over time, and does it have the capacity to respond to new demands and challenges?

Nevertheless, five regime types can be identified in the modern world: Western polyarchies; postcommunist regimes; East Asian regimes; Islamic regimes; military regimes.

 

1 Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following words and expressions.

To classify, binding decision, regime, to endure, upheaval, to facilitate, drawback, similarity, to disguise, coherent, limbo, applicable, compliance, polyarchy.

 

2 Translate words and word combinations from Ukrainian into English and use them in your own sentences.

Охоплювати, підсистема, династична спадкоємність, спрощення, значення, перевага, підкорятися, переговори, багатий, пристосовувати.

 

3 Complete the sentences with words or phrases from the list.

Succession, competitive, military, polyarchies, changed by elections, upheaval, distribution of power, post-communist.

1. It differs from other systems that use the name of democracy in that governments can be and frequently are _______, in contrast to the other, where elections are changed by governments.

2. Constantine then returned the empire to dynastic _____, which continued to be the norm, and produced some stability.

3. Another half century would elapse before the Cuban revolution of 1959 would successfully challenge the hemispheric status quo, inaugurating three decades of revolutionary _____ that would bring the Sandinistas to power in Nicaragua.

4. The most critical criterion is whether electoral institutions exist and how open and _____ the elections are.

5. Several influential scholars embraced the idea that the social conflict produced by the unequal __________ and wealth was at the root cause of crime.

6. After its failure to uncover any weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, the United States shifted its emphasis to democratizing the country along the principles of Western ______.

7. Scholars note that many _____ regimes have been neither democracies nor dictatorships.

8. The enormous literature on military coups and _________ regimes has been concerned with traditional regions of military intervention in Latin America, the Middle East and the developing countries of Africa.

 

4 Complete the sentences.

1. The classification of regimes...

2. A regime is...

3. “Government’ refers to...

4. Finally, all systems of classifications...

5. Since the late 1980s...

6. Whereas governments can...

7. A political system is...

8. First, classification is...

9. The image of a ‘world of liberal democracies’...

10. However, one of the difficulties...

11. No system of classification...

12. How materially affluent...

13. Has the regime survived...

14. What is the level...

15. Nevertheless, five...

5 Comprehension questions.

1. What are the difficulties in creating the classifications?

2. What do the terms ‘political systems’ and ‘regime’ mean? What is the difference between the terms? Give an example of different interpretations of the same term in different contexts in the text.

3. What is the difference between ‘government’ and a ’political system’?

4. Through which means can a regime be changed? How can political systems be changed?

5. What is ‘political’ in a political system?

6. Why are classifications of political systems necessary? What are the purposes of such classifications? Give your set of priorities of the parameters in the text for classification of system.

7. What are the two reasons for classifying political systems?

8. What are the common drawbacks of classifications of political systems? Name three of them given in the text.

9. What model of development has been regarded as the universally applicable one?

10. What are the parameters and criteria for classifications of political systems and regimes?

11. What regimes can be found in the modern world?

 

6 Say if the following statements are true according to the text.

1. ‘Government’ is involved in decision making process.

2. Before examining how different systems have been classified, it is necessary to reflect on both what is being classified and why such classifications have been undertaken.

3. Mechanisms of government and the institutions of the state, but also the structures and processes through which these interact with the larger society are included in the meaning of the term ‘regime’.

4. A social system is, in effect, a subsystem of a larger political system.

5. A regime depends on governments.

6. A regime is a ‘system of rule’ that endures despite the fact that governments come and go.

7. Governments can be changed by elections or through dynastic succession.

8. Classification of political systems can help to evaluation political processes.

9. All systems of classification have their drawbacks.

10. Simplification means ignoring the differences between the phenomena while drawing attention to the similarities that they have.

11. Throughout East Asia, ‘the state’ is very different from ‘the state’ as generally understood in the context of the West classification process.

12. Since the late 1980s, the regime classification industry has been very important.

13. Different systems of classification have tended to prioritize different sets of criteria.

14. The political contours of the new world are quite unclear.

15. The image of a ‘world of liberal democracies’ is based on the model of the USA.

16. There is no consensus about the criteria upon which system of classification should be based.

17. Four regime types can be identified in the modern world.