DIFFERENCES IN FOCUS

Focus may be positive or negative; it may be explicit or implicit; it may be general or specific. Cultures that emphasize communication as a tool for articulating specific goals in order to accomplish them tend to look upon negotiations as a series of points to "settle." Their language in negotiations is explicit and zeroes in on what has yet to be agreed. These explicit statements may in fact be questions and emphasize negative points of disagreement, such as: "What do you still not like about this detail of product design?" Americans prefer this direct approach because their aim is to clarify and resolve an issue.

But cultures that use communication to encourage harmony preserve face, and develop long-term relationships are not comfortable with direct and explicit talk. For instance, in Japan getting straight to some point about which agreement has yet to be reached might result in confrontation and emotions—even anger. Someone might lose face. Japanese, like negotiators from other Asian cultures, prefer to emphasize the positive points of agreement. They begin with general terms and seek agreement from the other side about general goals. Then regardless of the remaining details, the general agreement holds the two sides together in a relationship. They do not ask—and do not enjoy being asked- pointed questions. They want to develop relationships because once a relationship exists each side has an obligation to consider the needs of the other, so the issue resolves itself. The Chinese strategist and philosopher Sun Tzu (pronounced "swin zuh"), writing in the fifth century B.C., described the inexhaustibility of indirect tactics, as unending as the rivers and as recurring as the seasons. Conflicts can be diffused by indirectness.

An approach that focuses on particulars, especially unresolved ones, is typically Western. Negotiators look at the unsettled issues, and one by one address them. That approach is logical to the Western problem-solving mind. But it isn't shared by all cultures. In Asia, unresolved issues are part of the whole web of the relationship being woven by the negotiation process. A simultaneous, not sequential, approach means the negotiators look at unresolved issues as potentially resolved because of the developing relationship between the two sides.

Businesspeople from Western cultures need to remember that Japanese, Chinese, and most Asians dislike confrontation and will not argue when they feel they are right. Attacks on statements are the same thing as attacks on people making the statements. Japanese and Chinese and other Asians need

to remember that businesspeople in Western cultures pre­fer directness and the airing of different opinions, and to a large degree consider words apart from the people who produce them. When words are attacked, persons are notnec­essarily also attacked.

 

HONOR

Group membership, when it is highly valued, can impact negotiations in a number of ways. Negotiators whose allegiance is to a family group, such as the ruling household of some Arab countries, or to a nation, such as Korea, may be motivated to gain the best advantage for the honor of their group. The fact that something bigger than the individual seems to be at stake can make a negotiating team less flexible.

On the other hand, negotiators who are motivated by a desire to uphold their individual reputation and record can also be inflexible about backing down. The key is for you to understand what motivates your counterparts. Then you can accommodate the needs of the other side. If your counterparts are motivated to succeed for the honor of the group, then you need to send messages that show you understand. Your own group membership will be important to emphasize. In either case, words that provoke a defense of honor can be the wrong words to use.

Not backing down is related to a team's decision-making process. If it is a consensus-based process, then the team's position will have been determined by lengthy group dis­cussions before the negotiations take place. This makes the team less able to change their position spontaneously. They have to go back and consult the others in the group before they can agree to changes in their initial position. If individuals have authority to make decisions, the team’s position may be flexible and open to change.

FORM

Form is very important in high-context culturesand nowhere more so than in negotiation sessions. In Arab cultures, for example, sessions begin with small talk, and communication is indirect. In some situations, negotiators may sit on cushions on carpets, not on furniture. In other situations, the negotiations may take place in a restaurant or club owned by someone other than the negotiators. Visitors should not refuse an offer of hospitality such as a small cup of strong coffee, nor arrange their feet so that the soles point toward anyone. Proper respect is due older members of the Arab team, and that means not using too much familiarity. Visitors should use titles to address people, and they shouldn't ask about female family members. (If you ask how many chil­dren a businessman has, he may give you the number of his male children.)

In Ukraine and Russia, negotiators must follow the protocol of correctly using names. This means using the full name: the given name, the patronymic or father's name, and the fam­ily name. Proper respect is shown when all three names are used to refer to someone. A similar naming system is used by Mexicans and other Latin Americans.