Requirements of proof

 

Of course not every wrong committed in society is remediable in tort; the plaintiff has to show that he has suffered an action recognised as a tortious one, and he must show that his relation to the tortfeasor (committer of the tort) gives him the legal capacity to sue. Nevertheless, the law of tort covers a wide area of wrong doings. For example, the tort of nuisance covers many situations where even though no property is taken or trespassed upon, your enjoyment of land is interfered with, for example, by a neighbour who creates too much noise or whose rubbish causes unpleasant smells. The tort of defamation covers attacks against someone’s reputation through the written or spoken word. The tort of negligence has particularly wide application. Some torts are known as statutory torts — the kind of breach of duty which must be proved is defined in a statute.

The requirements of proof differ for each tort. Sometimes it is necessary to show a degree of carelessness, as in the tort of negligence. In others, a defendant may be liable even if he was not at fault, such as the strict liability tort where an animal you keep on your land manages to escape and cause damage. In some torts it is necessary for the plaintiff to show that he has suffered actual damage or injury, such as the tort of nuisance, whereas in others no harm need be shown. For example, in the tort of false imprisonment, it is enough to show that you have been detained against your will, even if it was for a short time, no force or threats were used, and you were not harmed or inconvenienced. Under the concept of vicarious liability (liability on behalf of someone else) it may be possible to sue the employer or a person who commits a tort in the normal course of his employment. This may be useful if high damages are being sought, since a defendant cannot be forced to pay more money than he has.

Some duties of care have been long recognized by the law and do not require much proof, for example, the duty of a doctor to exercise a high degree of care in treating his patient. But other duties depend upon the situation and must be proven. For example, what duty does a passer-by owe to the victim of a road accident when he tries to give emergency aid? In English law a general principle has been developed that we owe a duty to people closely affected by our actions to avoid causing harm which we could reasonably have foreseen.

Using this principle, a large body of case law has been created to clarify the duty of care in different areas of life. In developing case law, the courts have also been guided by common sense and public policy. One aim is to allow people to get just compensation for harm suffered without letting them forget their own responsibility to take care of themselves. Another is to discourage a big increase in the number of civil actions because of the amount of time the courts would need to deal with this.

 

1. What two elements should be present so that a legal liability can be imposed?

2. What are the main intentional torts?

3. What is known by the tort of negligence? What are its main elements?

4. What defenses to negligence do you know? Explain each.

5. Why is the number of cases of negligence rising every year?

6. When is the principle of strict liability applied? Give your examples.

7. What is product liability? Why was it difficult to prove? Has the situation changed today?

8. Explain the doctrine of respondeat superior. Why is it important for businessmen to be aware of it?

 

1. Give your reasons why torts are often easier to prove than crimes.

2. Name and briefly describe torts that most affect businesses. Give examples.

3. Find the English equivalents in the textsm use them and translate the sentences into Russian.

 

1. (Существенное различие между гражданскими правонарушениями и преступлениями) is that the former are the subject of civil law disputes between private individuals, and the latter are prosecuted by the state.

2. As for all civil actions (требуемая степень убедительности доказательств) is lower than in criminal prosecutions.

3. In general (почти каждый может искать и отвечать в суде) in tort — a child, someone who is mentally sick, even someone who has died.

4. Under the concept of vicarious liability (возможно подать иск против нанимателя) if a person who commits a tort in the normal course of his employment.

5. Nevertheless, the law of tort (охватывает широкий спектр правонарушений).

6. (Некоторые правонарушения известны как статутные) — the kind of breach of duty which must be proved is defined in a statute.

7. In contract, the aim of damages (состоит в том, чтобы поставить истца) in the position that he would have been in it if the contract had been. performed.

8. (В некоторых случаях гражданских правонарушений истцу необходимо) to show that he has suffered actual damage or injury.

9. (Число исков о халатности) is increasing all over the world, as is the amount of damages.

10. If the tortfeasor’s acts are notoriously wilful and malicious, a court may impose (убытки, присуждаемые в порядке наказания).

11. (Когда-то дела имели исковую силу только) if personal injury or damage to property could be shown.

12. (Защита ссылкой на вину потерпевшего) involves the failure of the injured party to be careful enough to ensure personal safety.

13. Businesspeople must be especially aware of tort law because of the (доктрина “пусть принципал отвечает”).

4. Translate the following text into English.

Термин “деликт” означает правонарушение; в широком смысле слова — антиобщественное деяние, причиняющее вред обществу и караемое по закону. Правонарушения подразделяются на: гражданские (причинение вреда личности, имуществу гражданина или организации), административные (например, нарушения правил дорожного движения), дисциплинарные проступки (прогул) и т.д. За правонарушения законом предусматривается соответственно гражданская, административная, дисциплинарная и уголовная ответственность. Согласно классификации, действующей сегодня в Великобритании, Австралии и некоторых других станах, правонарушения делятся на преступления и гражданские правонарушения, а преступления, в свою очередь, делятся на более серьезные (преследуемые по обвинительному акту) и менее серьезные (преследуемые в порядке суммарного производства).