CollocationsThese include translations of contextually appropriate local words into English. This type of lexical innovation marks the functional acculturation of the New Englishes in local—that is African and Asian— sociocultural contexts. For example, the use of twiceborn 'one who has been initiated as a Brahmin,' cobrother- in-law 'wife's sister's husband,' cow-worship 'worship of cows' in South Asian English; and cry die 'wake, funeral rites,' head tie 'head scarf,' throw water 'offer a bribe,' and co-wife 'the second of two wives' in African English. Idioms A vast number of idioms and comparative constructions are translated from local languages, e.g., to whisper together 'to talk privately,' and to have no shadow 'to have no courage,' in African English; and as honest as an elephant and as good as kitchen ashes in Indian English. The varieties of New Englishes are not homogeneous. Institutionalization over an extended period and various societal functions of the variety have resulted in a cline of varieties. The institutionalized New Englishes have an educated variety, and several other subvarieties. The subvarieties are based on proficiency (e.g., Butler English or Bazaar English in South Asia, Nigerian Pidgin in West Africa); societal level (e.g., basilect or colloquial English in Singapore and Malaysia); ethnic identity (e.g., Anglo-Indian English in India, Igbo English in Nigeria, Burger English in Sri Lanka); geographical area (e.g., Bengali English); and schooling (e.g., Convent English in South Asia). Case Study 8: American English American English, short forms AmE, AE. Also United States English, short form USE. The English language as used in the United States of America. The speakers of AmE outnumber all native speakers of English outside the US by about two to one and those of BrE by nearly four to one. This advantage, strengthened by US involvement with world affairs, has given AmE a global importance in the late 20c comparable to that of BrE in the late 19c. The history of the variety falls into three periods, whose dates correspond to political and social events with important consequences for the language: (1) The Colonial Period, during which a distinctive AmE was gestating. (2) The National Period, which saw its birth, establishment, and consolidation. (3) The International Period, during which it has come increasingly under foreign influence and has exerted influence on the varieties of English and on other languages. Variation within AmE is far less than within many other national languages. Although Americans are conscious of the odd way their fellow citizens in other communities talk, considering the size and population of the US, its language is relatively homogeneous. Yet there are distinctive speech ways in particular communities: the Boston Brahmins, the old families of New England who pride themselves on their culture and conservative attitudes and are noted for their haughtiness; the Gullah, who live on the islands off the shore of South Carolina and Georgia and talk with heavy West African influence; the Cajuns of Louisiana, descended from Acadian French immigrants, with folkways, cuisine, and speech ways that blend influences from several traditions; the Appalachian mountain people; the Tex-Mex bronco-busters; the laid-back life-stylers of Marin County, California; the Charlestonian Old South aristocracy; the inner-city African Americans; the Minnesota Swedes; the Chicanos of the Southwest; and many others. Beneath the relative uniformity of its standard, edited variety, American English is a rich gallimaufry of exotic and native stuffs.
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