6 страница. That was for him to find out

1 All the observations concerning the infinitive as subject, object, attribute and adverbial modifier of result hold good when these parts of the sentence are expressed by the/or-to-Infinitive Construction.

That was for him to find out. (Eliot) — Выяснить это должен был он.

3. Complex object.

He waited for her to speak. (Hardy) — Он ждал, когда она заговорит.

Не asked for the papers to be brought. — Он попросил при­нести бумаги.

I am very anxious for Mr. Headstone to succeed in all he

undertakes. (Dickens) — Мне очень хочется, чтобы мистеру Хедстону удавалось все, за что он берется. Erik saw that she was impatient for him to be gone. (Wil­son) — Эрик видел, что она с нетерпением ожидает, когда он уйдет.

I hope you won't think it very odd for a perfect stranger to talk to you like this. (Maugham) — Я надеюсь, вы не сочтете странным, что совершенно незнакомый вам человек разго­варивает с вами таким образом.

4. Attribute.

The best thing for you to do is to bide here with your load. I'll send somebody to help you. (Hardy) — Самое лучшее, что вы можете сделать, — это подождать здесь с вашей поклажей. Я пришлю кого-нибудь помочь вам.

There was really nothing for him to do but what he had done. (Dreiser) — Ему действительно ничего не оставалось делать, кроме того, что он сделал (единственное, что ему оставалось сделать, было то, что он сделал).

There's nobody here for him to play with. (Hemingway) — Здесь нет никого, с кем он мог бы поиграть. Не had even had a comfortable house for her (his niece) to live in. (Trollope) — У него даже был удобный дом, где она могла бы жить.

5. Adverbial modifier:

(a) of purpose.

Here's the thermometer: they've left it for the doctor to see

instead of shaking it down. (Shaw) — Вот термометр; его не стряхнули, чтобы доктор мог посмотреть температуру. Не stepped aside for me to pass. (Du Maurier) — Он отошел, в сторону, чтобы я могла пройти.

(b) of result.

The pleasure of accompanying you was too great a temptation for me to resist. (Collins) — Удовольствие сопровождать вас было так велико, что я не мог ему противиться.

But he had consented, and it was too late for him now to re-

cede. (Trollope) — Но он уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать.

Не spoke loud enough for you to hear. — Он говорил доста­точно громко, чтобы вы могли его слышать. His experience of women was great enough for him to be aware that the negative often meant nothing more than the preface to the affirmative. (Hardy) — Он достаточно хорошо знал женщин, чтобы понимать, что отказ бывает часто лишь преддверием к согласию.

 

§ 35. With the expressions to be sorry, to be glad the infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive.

I am glad (pleased) to have got a ticket for the concert. I am glad to have seen you. (Dreiser)

I am very sorry to have done a man wrong, particularly when it can't be undone. (Dickens)

In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to be sorry.

I am glad you got a ticket for the concert. "I am glad you think so," returned Doyce, with his grey eye look­ing kind and bright. (Dickens)

THE ADVERB

 

 

§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.

The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.

Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: "He amuses Winifred." (Galsworthy)

And glancing sidelong at his nephew he thought... (Galswor­thy)

For a second they stood with hands hard clasped. (Galswor­thy)

And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were so wide awake. (Dickens)

The man must have had diabolically acute hearing. (Wells) Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it. (Jerome)

 

§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:

(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);

(2) derivative adverbs {slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.);
(The most productive adverb-forming suffix is -ly. There are also some
other suffixes: -wards, -ward; -long, -wise.)

(3) compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);

(4) composite adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).

 

§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.

(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree
is formed by adding -er and the superlative by adding -est.

fast — faster — fastest hard — harder — hardest

(b) Adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative by means of more
^arid the superlative by means of most.

wisely — more wisely — most wisely

beautifully — more beautifully — most beautifully

(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:

well — better — best badly — worse — worst much — more — most little — less — least

 

§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:

(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);

(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);

(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, back­ward, upstairs, etc.);

(4) adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, ac­cordingly, etc.);

(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);

(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half,
too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once,
twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).

Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.

Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.

Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.¹

1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence. 2 See Chapter XII, The Preposition. 3 See Chapter VI, The Words of the Category of State. 4 See Chapter X, The Modal Words.

Some adverbs are homonymous with nouns, adjectives, prepo­sitions, conjunctions², words of the category of state³ and modal words⁴.

THE MODAL WORDS

 

 

§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.

§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:

(1) words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly, etc.);

(2) words expressing supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, prob­ably, etc.);

(3) words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily; luckily — un­luckily; fortunately — unfortunately).

§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.¹ Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.²

Certainly you'll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wil­son)

"Will you allow me to detain you one moment," said he. "Cer­tainly," replied the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)

§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and adverbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.

Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English.

1 See Chapter XV, The Simple Sentence. 2Modal words used as sentence-words are similar to the words yes and no e*pressing affirmation and negation, which are also sentence-words.

Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.

If he were not married as happily as he was, might not somethinq come of it? (Dreiser) (ADVERB)

... she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but happily brief scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel... (Ch. Bronte) (MODAL WORD) Lamlein rose. "We have fulfilled our obligations," he said pomp­ously, and yet not quite certainly. (Heym) (ADVERB) Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him (Galsworthy) (MODAL WORD)

Slowly, surely, with the secret inner process that works the destruction of an old tree, the poison of the wounds to his hap­piness, his will, his pride, had corroded the comely edifice of his philosophy. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)

Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him over the ridge. (Wells) (MODAL WORD)

THE INTERJECTION

 

 

§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech which expresses various emo­tions without naming them.

 

§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.

1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They
are: ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.

... A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted, "Americans! Hurrah!" (Heym) (joy) Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window "To let". (Dickens) (sorrow)

Psha! There's no possibility of being witty without a little ill nature. (Sheridan) (contempt)

Oh, bother! I can't see anyone now. Who is it? (Shaw) (indigna­tion)

"Dear me!" says Mr. Chillip meekly smiling with something shin­ing in his eyes. (Dickens) (surprise)

2. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker or his order or
appeal to the hearer. They are: here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.

Here! I've had enough of this. I'm going. (Shaw) (protest) "Upon my word I was not awake, sir," replied Oliver earnestly. "I was not, indeed, sir." "Tush, tush, my dear!" said the Jew abruptly resuming his old manner. (Dickens) (order)

 

§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.

I. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are simple words: ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, bravo, hush. Only a few primary interjections are composite: heigh-ho! hey-ho! holla-ho! gee-ho!

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+ш. I^VVUIIUHl j llliVIJVVMUilU V** W V*W***WV* II Will VSVllW* ptii Ю V/l k_»|^WWW»».

They are homonymous with the words they are derived from. They are: toell, now, here, there, come, why, etc.

(Derivative interjections should not be confused with exclamation-words, such as nonsense, shame, good, etc.)

Derivative interjections maybe simple: well, here, there, come, etc. and composite: dear me, confound it, hang it, etc.

Interjections are used as independent sentence-words or independ­ent elements of the sentence.¹

TheDaughter: Sixpence thrown away! Really mamma, you might have spared Freddy that. TheGentleman: Phew! (Shaw)

Well, I don't like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is so fond of taking. (Voynich)

1 See Chapter XV, §42.

 

Note. Formulas of courtesy, greetings, etc. should not be regarded as interjections. Thus, good-bye, thank you are not interjections because they do not express emotion or will.

THE PREPOSITION

 

 

§ 1. The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.

Usually the preposition is not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.

Desert moved quickly to the windows. (Galsworthy)

Sometimes, however, a preposition maybe separated from the word it refers to and placed at the end of the sentence or clause. In that case it is stressed.

But he sounds as though he knows what he's talking about. (Wilson)

The preposition may be weakly stressed before a pronoun.

She wrote the words to them herself, and other poems. (Galsworthy)

The preposition is stressed when its meaning is emphasized. The book was in the table, not on It.

 

§ 2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:

(1) simple (in, on, at, for, with, etc.);

(2) derivative (behind, below, across, along, etc.);

(3) compound (inside, outside, within, without, etc.);

(4) composite (because of, in front of, in accordance with, etc.).

 

§ 3. According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into Prepositions of place and direction (in, on, below, under, between, ^etc.), time (after, before, at, etc.), prepositions expressing abstract Nations (отвлеченные отношения) (by, with, because of, with a ^view to, etc.).

The lexical meaning of some prepositions is quite concrete (e. g. j_n below, between, before, after, till, etc.), while that of some other preposU tions may be weakened to a great extent (e. g. to, by, of).

For instance, the preposition to generally indicates direction or movement towards something:

Every night Sissy went to Rachel's lodging, and sat with her in her small neat room. (Dickens)

But in some cases the lexical meaning of the preposition to is weakened.

... all the house belongs to me, or will do in a few years. (Ch. Bronte)

Some prepositions are polysemantic and may express different relations; e. g.for:

Never once had Erik sensed the struggle for life. (Wilson) (pur­pose)

Even when their eyes had met and her sister had approached the bed, Louisa lay for minutes looking at her in silence... (Dickens) (time)

She could scarcely move her head for pain and heaviness, her eyes were strained and sore, and she was very weak. (Dickens) (cause)

 

§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunc­tions.

For instance, the prepositions after and before are homonymous with the adverbs after and before and with the conjunctions after and before.

There is an old saying that if a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had better not fall in love after. (Shaw) (ADVERB) When he got back to Ann Arbor, he found Savina in a state of excitement because Trasker had heard from Regan after EriK had left. (Wilson) (CONJUNCTION)

"Where do you intend to stay tonight?" she asked after a mo­ment. (Wilson) (PREPOSITION)

The colour rushed into Rosinney'sface. but soon receded, leavinO it sallow-brown as before. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB) He did not write to her, and it was almost a year before he bega^p to see her again. (Wilson) (CONJUNCTION)

This letter seemed to afford her peculiar satisfaction; she read it through twice before replying to the landlady. (Mansfield) (PREPOSITION)

Though identical in form, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are different parts of speech. The adverb, unlike the preposition and conjunction, serves as part of the sentence, e. g. after is an adverbial modifier of time, etc.

 

§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.¹

A preposition as well as a postposition does not perform any in­dependent function in the sentence. But while a preposition denotes the relation between objects and phenomena, a postposition is part of a composite verb.

A preposition is not usually stressed, while a postposition usually bears the stress.

i See Chapter VII, §2.

We've got to live on what we earn. (Cronin) (PREPOSITION) He liked Erik more than any of the assistants the department had taken on in a long time, as much as he could like one of the younger men. (Wilson) (POSTPOSITION)

Chapter XIII

THE CONJUNCTION

 

 

§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.

Sadie brought them in and went back to the door. (Mansfield)

... the blinds were down in the dining-room and the lights turned

on — and all the lights were red-roses. (Mansfield)

The other day I was saying to Fabermacher that Haviland isn't

really cruel, he's just thoughtless. And Fabermacher said that

was the cruellest thing about the human race. And he's right.

(Wilson)

 

§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:

(1) simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where,
when, etc.).

Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with preposi­tions, adverbs, and pronouns.

(2) derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.).

(3) compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). These conjunctions are few.

(4) composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.).

Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both... and, either... or, not only... but (also), neither... nor, whether... or.

If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the ques­tion would have seemed to him both ridiculous and sentimental. (Galsworthy)

... nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of vision or conception. (Ch. Bronte) Her son had not only come home, but he had come home a good person. (Abrahams)

Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was neither smallness nor meanness. (London)

He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, but whether he had been beaten by the storm for two days or two weeks he did not know. (London)

 

§ 3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes:

(1) coordinating conjunctions;

(2) subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homo­geneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).

(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, but he simply couldn't any more; and crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. (Galsworthy)

(b) He opened his eyes and stared quietly at the pure sky. (Wil­son)

(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right and that other human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they. (London)

(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Havi-land apologized for his mistake. But he was not as impressed as Erik had wanted him to be. (Wilson)

Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or de­pendent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogene­ous parts (c).

(a) When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)

(b) He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permitted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)

(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offen­sive, for she spoke with extreme, though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)

 

§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.

The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the relations they exⁿress. Thus the classes of coordinating conjunctions according to ^lheir meaning correspond to different types of compound sentences.

There are four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions.

1. Copulative conjunctions: and, nor, as well as, both... and, not
only... but (also), neither... nor. Copulative conjunctions chiefly denote
that one statement or fact is simply added to another {nor and neither
express that relation in the negative sense).

There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower, and in the sky the blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds. (Galswor­thy)

His whole face was colourless rock; his eye was both spark and flint. (Ch. Bronte)

I do not know what they knew of the things happening beyond the hill, nor do I know if the silent houses I passed on my way were sleeping securely... (Wells)

... but it made him indeed suspect that she could give as well as receive; and she gave him nothing. (Galsworthy)... the newspapers discussed the play for a whole fortnight not only in the ordinary theatrical notices and criticisms, but in lead­ing articles and letters. (Shaw)

He went on as a statue would: that is, he neither spoke nor moved. (Ch. Bronte)

2. Disjunctive conjunctions: or, either... or, or else, else.
Disjunctive conjunctions offer some choice between one statement

and another.

The majority of the inhabitants had escaped, I suppose, byway of the Old Worning road... or they had hidden. (Wells)... either his furlough was up, or he dreaded to meet any wit­nesses of his Waterloo flight. (Thackeray) He was compelled to think this thought, or else there would not be any use to strive, and he would have lain down and died. (London)

"You go and fetch her down, Tom," said Mr. Tulliver, rather sharply-his perspicacity or his fatherly fondness for Maggie making him suspect that the lad had been hard upon "the little un", else she would never have left his side... (Eliot)

3. Adversative conjunctions: but, while, whereas. Adversati^ve
conjunctions show that one statement or fact is contrasted with or set
against another.

Fabermacher nodded in agreement, but his eyes glittered witf¹ silent triumph and contempt for the victory. (Wilson)

His nerves had become blunted, numb, while his mind was filled with weird visions and delicious dreams. (London)

4. Causative-consecutive conjunctions: so, for. Causative-con­secutive conjunctions denote consequence, result, or reason. By these conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or proved from another.

He had gone some miles away, and was not expected home until late at night; so the landlady dispatched the same messenger in all haste for Mr. Pecksniff. (Dickens)

His eyes must have had in them something of George Forsyte's sardonic look; for her gloved hand crisped the folds of her frock, her eyebrows rose, her face went stony. (Galsworthy)

The conjunction for is a border-line case between a coordinating and a subordinating conjunction. When expressing cause it approaches in its meaning the subordinating conjunctions as, because:

There was moreover time to spare, for Fleur was to meet him at the Gallery at four o'clock, and it was yet half past two. (Galsworthy)

Coordinating conjunctions can be used both in compound and in simple sentences; the coordinating copulative conjunctions both... and, as well as are used only in simple sentences.

Then he shrugged in impatience and said frankly, "I don't know what came over me." "You know as well as I do and that's why we're going away," Savina insisted steadily. (Wilson)

The use of the copulative conjunction and in simple sentences as ^well as in compound sentences is widely spread.

But as he did so, unexpectedly he paused, and raised his head. (Cronin)

The coordinating conjunctions neither... nor, or, either... огаге more widely used in simple sentences than in complex sentences.

There was nothing remarkable about the size of the eyes. They were neither large nor small... (London)... in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only neces­sary to make the thing difficult to attain. (Twain)... there was a slight smile on his lips that could have been either amusement or shy self-deprecation. (Wilson)

^^ЧЧМагика английскою языка

Some of the coordinating conjunctions are polysemantic. Thus the coordinating conjunction and may indicate different relations:

... there stood a white house within a walled garden, and in the pantry of this we found a store of food. (Wells) (COPULATIVE) You are nineteen, Jon, and I am seventy-two. How are we to understand each other in a matter like this, eh? (Galsworthy) (ADVERSATIVE)

When he read those books something happened to him, and he went out of doors again in passionate quest of a river. (Galswor­thy) (CONSECUTIVE)

The conjunction or may have a disjunctive and an adversative meaning.

Happily it (a hackney-coach) brought them to the place where Jonas dwelt or the young ladies might have rather missed the point and cream of the jest. (Dickens) (ADVERSATIVE) After that one would see, or more probably one would not. (Galsworthy) (DISJUNCTIVE)

The causative-consecutive conjunction for may have a causative or a consecutive meaning:

He would have to be more careful than man had ever been, for the least thing would give it away and make her as wretched as himself almost. (Galsworthy) (CAUSATIVE) From the warmth of her embrace he probably divined that he had let the cat out of the bag, for he rode off at once on irony. (Galsworthy) (CONSECUTIVE)

 

§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.

Subordinating conjunctions may introduce subject clauses, ob­ject clauses, predicative clauses, adverbial clauses, and attributive clauses.¹

Many of the subordinating conjunctions introduce different kinds of clauses. For instance that may introduce subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose and of result.

1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.

That Ruth had little faith in his power as a writer did not alter her nor diminish her in Martin's eyes. (London) (SUBJE^ CLAUSE)

What I mean is that you're the first man I ever met who's willing to admit out loud to a woman that he thinks she's better than he is. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)

He looked to the south and knew that somewhere beyond those blue hills lay the Great Bear Lake. (London) (OBJECT CLAUSE) He walked into the Green Park that he might cross to Victoria Station and take the Underground into the City. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)

He bailed wildly at first, splashing himself and flinging the water so short a distance that it ran back into the pool. (London) (AD­VERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT)

The conjunction //introduces object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition:

He was anxious to see if she had relapsed since the previous evening. (Dickens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)

If the man ran, he would run after him; but the man did not run. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION)

The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of time, of cause, and of comparison:

These were the thoughts of the man as he strove onward. (Lon­don) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

As Jacob has made me captain, I must call the roll. (Dodge) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)

That day had decreased the distance between him and the ship by three miles; the next day by two — for he was crawling now as Bill had crawled. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COM­PARISON)

The conjunction while may express both coordination and subor­dination. It may be a coordinating adversative conjunction (in this case it is translated as тогда как; a) or a subordinating conjunction of time (in this case it is translated as в то время как, пока).

Older men probably resented him while others of his own gene­ration could feel so inadequate when comparing their talent to his... (Wilson) (COORDINATING CONJUNCTION) While skating along at full speed, they heard the cars from Am­sterdam coming close behind them. (Dodge) (SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION)

Subordinating conjunctions may also be used in simple sentences, ^hey join adverbial modifiers to the predicate of the sentence. Con­

junctions of comparison, such as as if, as though are frequently used i_n simple sentences.

He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said (Ch. Bronte)