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Note. The connection between the attributive continuative clause and the principal clause is so loose that it is doubtful whether we have here a subordinate or a coordinate clause; it may be considered a borderline case between subordination and coordination.

Kate turned to the general, who was near her, his face expres­sionless, yet alert. (Lawrence) A widow is a woman whose husband is dead.

Whom is possible instead of who when it has the function of the object in the relative clause.

The man whom I wanted to see was away on holiday.

But in spoken English who or that are preferred to whom.

The man who/that I wanted to see was away on holiday.

2. If the antecedent is a noun denoting an inanimate object, which
is mostly used.

In this room, which was never used, a light was burning. (Dick­ens)

The castle, which stood on the highest platform of the clustered hills, was built of rough-hewn limestone. (Eliot)

3. The pronoun that may be used both when the antecedent is a noun
denoting a living being and when it is a noun denoting an inanimate
object. But it should be noted that the use of this pronoun in attributive
clauses is limited; it is chiefly used in the following cases:

(a) if the antecedent is the pronoun all, everything or nothing.

All that she dreams comes true. (Dickens)

In a word, everything that goes to make life precious, that boy

had. (Twain)

(b) if the antecedent is modified by an adjective in the superlative
degree, by the adjective only, or by the indefinite pronoun any.

The door opened, and there entered to us, quietly, the most re­markable-looking man that I had ever seen. (Collins) The Moonstone was the only object that interested him in the smallest degree. (Collins) Any evil that people say of him is false. (Eliot)

 

N о t e. In these cases (a, b) the attributive clause may be connected with the principal clause asyndetically.

Time is all I want. (Dreiser)

Everything I could do to free myself came into my mind... (Eliot)

It was the worst Sunday he had spent in his life. (Dreiser)

I think she is the only really happy woman I have ever met with

(Collins)

 

4. If the antecedent is a noun modified by the demonstrative pro­noun such the relative pronoun as is used.

For on the evening appointed for the Vauxhall party... there came on such a thunderstorm as only happens on Vauxhall nights, and as obliged the young people, perforce, to remain at home. (Thackeray)

 

§11. Adverbial clauses.

An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause.

He stopped as Kravat came rushing out. (Heym) He was getting on better than he'd expected. (Lindsay) Frank... returned to the auction room as fast as his legs would carry him. (Dreiser)

According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), pur­pose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison.

Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except sometimes adverbial clauses of condi­tion.

An adverbial clause may precede the clause to which it is subor­dinated or follow it. In the first case it is separated from the principal clause by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used. An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it.

When things are at the worst, they're sure to mend. (Collins) He was sipping the whisky and soda when she retui Qed, (Cronin)

The first words, when we had taken our seats, were spoken by my lady. (Collins)

If we have two or more homogeneous adverbial clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.

He (Oliver) was still the same gentle, attached, affectionate crea­ture that he had been when pain and suffering had wasted his strength, and when he was dependent for every slight attention and comfort on those who tended him. (Dickens)

 

§12. Adverbial clauses of time.

An adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever (когда бы ни), as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now that (теперь, когда).

My mother died when I was eight years old... (Eliot)

... we must strike while the iron's hot. (Galsworthy)

I shall hope to visit you whenever I happen to be in London.

(Collins)

There was still a gleam of sunset in the west as he strolled along. (Cronin)

Jan waved till the taxi disappeared round the bend in the road. (Cusack)

After this, they conversed on different subjects until they arrived at their journey's end. (Dickens)

But as soon as I saw Susan I stopped noticing my surround­ings. (Braine)

You can stay here as long as you want. (Hemingway)

She (June) had given him nothing of her company for a long time

past, not in fact, since she had become engaged to Bosinney.

(Galsworthy)

There was scarcely time for him to swallow a cup of tea in the refreshment room before the southbound train was signalled. (Cronin)

This is the claim I make on you, now that we have found each other. (Eliot)

In some cases an adverbial clause of time introduced by the con­junction as has the meaning of the gradual development of a process.

As dark night drew on, the sea roughened. (Ch. Bronte)

Adverbial clauses in sentences of the following type are also clauses of time:

Scarcely had his hands touched her head, when she sighed deeply. (London)

Hardly had they entered the house, when a violent thunde rgtn_rrn broke out.

No sooner had I wiped one salt drop from my cheek, than an- other followed. (Ch. Bronte)

The peculiarity of such sentences is that the conjunctions when and than introducing adverbial clauses of time are correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner in the principal clause.

 

Note 1. The conjunction when introducing adverbial clauses of time should not be confused with the adverb when introducing subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses. Com­pare the following examples:

And people love their homes, even when things are tough. (Gow and D'Usseau) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME) The next thing to discover is when the paint was last seen without that smear. (Collins) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE) Nothing told her when the eyes of her friend were for an instant fixed upon her, when the mind of her friend for a moment won­dered at the strange, new look in her face. (Hichens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)

There were moments when I felt all the misery of my friendless-ness, all the peril of my dreadful responsibility. (Collins) (ATTRIBU­TIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

Note 2. Adverbial clauses of time introduced by the subordinating conjunction while should not be confused with independent clauses in­troduced by the coordinating conjunction while.

§13. Adverbial clauses of place. An adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever (где бы ни, куда бы ни). ... I am quite comfortable where I am. (Wilde) I looked where she pointed. (Collins)

There was a pause while he raised his cup and drank some tea. (Cronin) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME) His face was disturbed and troubled, while his clothes were dis ar: ranged and untidy. (Conan Doyle) (INDEPENDENT CLAUSE)

... the street singers and players were making their nightly pil­grimage, pausing, wherever they saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. (Hichens)

 

Note. One should not confuse the conjunction where introducing ad­verbial clauses of place with the adverb where introducing subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses.

Deronda placed himself where he could see her... (Eliot) (AD­VERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE)

This must be where my sister lives. This is where she came for a temporary lodging, soon after father's death. (Dickens) (PREDI­CATIVE CLAUSE)

Artois wondered where they were going. (/-//'cfrens^OBJECT CLAUSE)

He turned immediately towards the hearth where Silas Marner sat lulling the child. (Eliot) (ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE)

 

§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause.

An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are intro­duced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that and some others.

As he had a liking for the spot, he seldom let a week pass without paying it a visit. (Dickens)

Letters were infrequent in his world and not very welcome be­cause more often than not they contained bad news. (Priest­ley)

Since he had a certain talent for composition, his English master encouraged him to write little pieces... for the college magazine. (Cronin)

He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his power. (Lawrence)

 

§15. Adverbial clauses of purpose.

Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action ex­pressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы не) and some others.

She kept her back to the window that he might not see_ hpr _r\_s, ing colour. (Hardy)

Wounds sometimes must be opened in order that they may h_c healed. (Trollope)

I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I shouldj iot be seen. (Du Maurier)

... he made all these exclamations in a carefully suppressed voice lest the valet should overhear anything. (Dickens)

 

§16. Adverbial clauses of condition.

Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions //, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that, provided (при условии что), etc.

If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him. (Austen)

I do not wish you to be my wife unless you are bound to me by love. (Trollope)

... my father, just at the last, consented to let him teach you, on condition that he never attempted to see your mother. (Voy-hich)

I will do anything you wish, my brother, provided it lies in my power. (Dickens)

Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause.

... should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him. (Trollope)

Had she been an Englishwoman, Artois would have guessed her to be near fifty. (Hichens)

 

§17. Adverbial clauses of concession.

An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause.

Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions and connectives: though, although, as, ^[3] no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever. In official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that.

I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it rained. (Ch. Bronte)

Although the young man's eyes remained upon him, he did not speak... (Cronin)

Troubled as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. (Dreiser)

However much we may differ on the question of metaphysics, I am convinced of your absolute integrity. (Cronin) He went forward to meet his uncle prepared to suppress the agita­tion he must feel, whatever news he was to hear. (Eliot)

 

§18. Adverbial clauses of result.

Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree.

Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunc­tion so that; they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were nearly deserted. (Conan Doyle)

Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in these cases we find the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such in the principal clause. Such clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma.

He is so weak physically that he can hardly move. (Shaw) Tom was in ecstasies — in such ecstasies that he even controlled his tongue and was silent. (Twain)

 

§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner.

Adverbial clauses of manner characterize in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. They are usually introduced by the conjunction as. In adverbial clauses of manner the idea of comparison is often implied.

... she did exactly as he told her. (Hardy)

Joe left the house as he had entered it... (Cronin)

§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison.

Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, as, as... as, not so... as, as if, as though.

Mr. Direck's broken wrist healed sooner than he desired
(Wells) ~^

We were going up the road as fast as we could. (Hemingway) He was white and jaded, as if he had not slept for many niqhte _ (Wells)

She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were talking to himself. (Cronin)

 

Note. Some grammarians number among complex sentences, con­taining an adverbial clause of comparison, sentences of the following type:

The more he reflected on the idea the more he liked it. (Galswor­thy)

The nearer he drew to that grim citadel the faster his pulse raced. (Cronin)

This way of analysis is open to objection on the ground that in sentences of this type it is impossible to point out the principal and the subordinate clause as, strictly speaking, here we have mutual subordination.

 

§21. Some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of adverbial clauses. For instance, the conjunction as may introduce adverbial clauses of time, cause, manner, and comparison.

As he spoke there was a sharp ring at the bell. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

As the morning was fine, and he had an hour on his han ds, he crossed the river by the ferry, and strolled along a footpath through some meadows. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)

The dog did as he was ordered. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER)

She (Lillian) saw now that she did not love him (Cowperwood) |§ some women love their husbands. (Dreiser) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSc OF COMPARISON)

The conjunction since introduces adverbial clauses of time and cause.

It was a long time since I had written to the States... (Hemingway) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

Since the lunchroom was full, she sat at our table, and reached out for the bill of fare. (King) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)

The composite conjunction so that introduces adverbial clauses of result and purpose.

They were rich and I was poor, so that it was no easy matter for me to follow them. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT)

I turned away, so that Frith should not see my face. (Du Maurier) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)

 

 

The Compound-Complex Sentence

 

A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least has one or several subordinate clauses.

There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips. (Twain)

 

 

Parenthetical Clauses

 

Besides all the types of clauses mentioned above, there is a special type of clause called the parenthetical clause, as in the following ex­amples:

You are, I am afraid, far more urgently in need of medical advice than your daughter. (Collins)

The next and last step in the investigation brought matters, as they say, to a crisis. (Collins)

Her singing is something quite exceptional, I think. (Eliot)

Chapter XVIII

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

 

 

§ 1. The sequence of tenses is a certain dependence of the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause on that of the verb in the principal clause: if the verb in the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or future in the past) must be used in the subordinate clause. The rule is generally observed in object clauses (a more detailed treatment of the question will be found in § 7, 9, Ю).

I thought you had better sense. (Dreiser) I always thought it would come to this.

 

N о t e. It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or future tense is used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can be used in the subordinate clause:

I've seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser)

 

§ 2. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultane­ous with that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the subordinate clause:

I thought you had more courage than this. (Dreiser) — Я думал, что у вас больше мужества.

Не looked at Cowperwood and saw at once... that the latter was preparing a big fight of some sort. (Dreiser) — Он посмотрел на Каупервуда и сразу понял, что тот замышляет какой-то бой.

If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause:

He knew that she (Hetty) had not had time to read the letter. (Eliot) — Он знал, что она еще не успела прочесть письмо.

If the action expressed in the subordinate clause lasted a certain time before the action expressed in the principal clause, the Past Per-

Chapter XVIII! The Sequence of Tenses ■ 353

feet Continuous or the Past Perfect Inclusive is used in the subordinate clause.

He realized that the old life he had lived In that city since boy­hood was ended. (Dreiser) — Он понял, что та жизнь, которой он жил в этом городе с детства, окончилась.

If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the principal clause the Future in the Past is used.

He knew they would read the book the following year. (FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE PAST)

He knew they would be reading when she came. (FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST)

He knew they would have read the book by the 1st of June. (FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST)

Occasionally we find examples of should being used with the 3rd person and would with the 1st. This generally occurs when the speaker wants to preserve the same verb that was used by the original speaker.

See! Here's his writing; I made him put it down this morning when he told me he shouldn't be back before I came here. (Dickens)

He asked me if there wasn't any hope that I would change.

(Webster)

 

§ 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed in all of them.

As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think of her girlish fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as a folly of which she was timely cured. (Eliot)

 

§ 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a subordinate clause to which other clauses are subor­dinated.

She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett) He said he was sure you were in.

 

§ 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if they depend on a finite verb in the past tense:

¹2 \ рамматика лнмиискою языка

Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one hundred thousand dollars. (Dreiser)

 

§ 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the principal clause.

 

Tenses Used in English and Russian Subordinate Clauses after a Past Tense in the Principal Clause

 

ENGLISH	RUSSIAN
Past Indefinite	Present
1 knew she played the piano every day.	Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле каждый день.
Past Continuous	Present
1 knew she was playing the piano and did not want to disturb her.	Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле, и не хотел ее беспокоить.
Past Perfect	Past
1 knew she had played the piano at the evening party.	Я знал, что она играла на рояле на вечере.
Past Perfect Continuous (Past Perfect Inclusive)	Present (in affirmative sentences)
1 knew she had been playing (had played) the piano for two hours.	Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле два часа.
Past Perfect	Past (in negative sentences)
1 knew she had not played the piano for a long time.	Я знал, что она давно не играла (не играет) на рояле.
Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive	Past
1 knew she had been playing the piano.	Я знал, что она играла на рояле.
Future in the Past	Future
1 knew she would play the piano at the evening party.	Я знал, что она будет играть на рояле на вечере.

____________________________ Chapter XVIII. The Sequence of Tenses ■ 355

§ 7. The main sphere where the sequence of tenses is applied is object clauses.

Harris said he knew what kind of place I meant. (Jerome)

The sequence of tenses is not observed if the object clause expresses a general truth:

The pupils knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

In political language a present tense is often used in the object clause after a past tense in the principal clause.

The speaker said that the peoples want peace.

The sequence of tenses is often not observed if something is repre­sented as habitual, customary, or characteristic.

He asked the guard what time the train usually starts. (Curme)

He did not seem to know that nettles sting. (Curme)

 

§ 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used according to the same principle which governs their uses in complex sentences with a principal clause and an object clause, though there is no principal clause.

She put her hands up to her ears; it was because there were some thin gold rings in them, which were also worth a little money. Yes, she could surely get some money for her ornaments. The landlord and landlady had been good to her; perhaps they would help her to get the money for these things. But this money would not keep her long; what should she do when it was gone? (Eliot)

 

§ 9. The sequence of tenses does not concern attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession (if the verb stands in the Indicative Mood).

I didn't go out of the shop door, but at the back door, which opens into a narrow alley. (Eliot)

He didn't go to the cinema last night because he will have an exam tomorrow.

She worked so much yesterday that she is feeling quite weak today.

Last year he worked more than he does this year.

He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will not want the book today.

 

§ 10. The sequence of tenses is generally observed in subject clauses and predicative clauses:

What he would do was of no importance. The question was what he would do next.

It is also observed in appositive attributive clauses:

She had a sickening sense that life would go on in this way. (Eliot)

Chapter XIX

INDIRECT SPEECH

 

§ 1. In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words of the speaker are given, indirect speech is a form of utterance in which these words are reported.

 

§ 2. When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are introduced:

1. The quotation marks and the comma (or colon) are omitted.

2. If the speaker reports somebody else's words the pronouns of the I st person are replaced by those of the 3rd person; the pronouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st or 3rd.

He said, "I am ready." He said he was ready.

If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed:

I said, "I am ready." I said I was ready.

3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, demonstra-
tive pronouns and adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words
expressing distance:

Here is replaced by there. This by that, these by those.

Now by then, at that time (moment), or no adverb is used at all.

Today is replaced by that day.

Yesterday by the day before or on the previous day.

Ago by before.

A year ago by a year before.

Last night by the previous night.

358 ■ Part II. Syntax
Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
She said, "We have been here for a week."	She said they had been there for a week.
She said, "1 met them yesterday."	She said she had met them the day before
She said, "We can't settle anything now."	She said they could not settle anything at that moment (then).

If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words are reported, the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs are not changed.

An hour ago he said he would come here tonight.

I told him I wouldn't give him an answer till tomorrow. (Wilde)

4. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses. The Present Indefinite is replaced by the Past Indefinite.

 

She said, "We often write letters."	She said they often wrote letters.
The Present Continuous is replaced by the Past Continuous.
She said, "We are writing a letter."	She said they were writing a letter.
The Present Perfect is replaced by the Past Perfect.
She said, "We have just written a letter."	She said they had just written a let­ter.
The Present Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.
She said, "We have been writing for an hour."	She said they had been writing for an hour.
The Past Indefinite is replaced by the Past Perfect.
She said, "We wrote a letter last night."	She said they had written a letter on the previous night.

The Past Continuous generally remains unchanged, or is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.