Regimes of the Modern World

A. Western polyarchies. Western polyarchies are broadly equivalent to regimes categorized as ‘liberal democracies’ or even simply ‘democracies’. Their heartlands are therefore North America, Western Europe and Australasia, although states ranging from India and Japan to the ‘new’ South Africa all exhibit strongly polyarchical features.

The term ‘polyarchy’ is preferable to liberal ‘democracy’ for two reasons. First, liberal democracy is sometimes treated as a political ideal. Secondly, the use of ‘polyarchy’ acknowledges that these regimes fall short, in important ways, of the goal of democracy. All states that hold multiparty elections have polyarchical features. Nevertheless, western polyarchies have a more distinctive and particular character. They are marked not only by representative democracy and a capitalist economic organization, but also by a widespread acceptance of liberal individualism.

Western polyarchies are not all alike, however. Some of them are biased in favour of centralization and majority rule, and others tend towards fragmentation and pluralism. A system of consociational democracy is particularly appropriate to societies that are divided by deep religious, ideological, regional, cultural or other differences. Consensual or pluralistic tendencies are often associated with the following features: 1) coalition government; 2) a separation of powers between the executive and the assembly; 3) an effective bicameral system; 4) a multiparty system; 5) proportional representation; 6) federalism or devolution; 7) a codified constitution and a bill of rights.

Postcommunist regimes. The collapse of communism in the eastern European revolutions of 1989-91 undoubtedly unleashed a process of democratization that drew heavily on the western liberal model. The central features of this process were the adoption of multiparty elections and the introduction of market-based economic reforms. In that sense, it can be argued that most (some would say all) former communist regimes are undergoing a transition that will eventually make them indistinguishable from western polyarchies. Nevertheless, for the time being at least, there are reasons for treating these systems as distinct. In the first place, the heritage of their communist past can not be discarded overnight, especially when, as in Russia, the communist system had endured for over 70 years. Secondly, the process of transition itself has unleashed forces and generated problems quite different from those that western polyarchies confront. One feature of postcommunist regimes is the need to deal with the politico-cultural consequences of communist rule. A second set of problems stems from the process of economic transition. The ‘shock therapy’ transition from central planning to laissez-faire capitalism, advocated by the International Monetary Fund, unleashed deep insecurity because of the growth of unemployment and inflation, and it significantly increased social inequality. Important differences between postcommunist states can also be identified. The most crucial of these is that between the more industrially advanced and westernized countries of ‘central’ Europe and the more backward ‘eastern’ states. In the former group, market reform has proceeded swiftly and relatively smoothly; in the latter, it has either been grudging and incomplete or it has given rise to deep political tensions.

East Asian Regimes. The rise of East Asia in the late twentieth century may ultimately prove to be a more important world-historical event than the collapse of communism. Certainly, the balance of the world’s economy has shifted markedly from the West to the East in this period. However, the notion that this is a distinctively East Asian political form is a less familiar one. The widespread assumption has been that modernization means westernization. Translated into political terms, this means that industrial capitalism is always accompanied by liberal democracy. However, this interpretation fails to take account of the degree to which polyarchial institutions function differently in Asian context from the way they do in western one. Most importantly, it ignores the difference between cultures influenced by Confucian ideas and values and ones shaped by liberal individualism.

East Asian regimes tend to have similar characteristics. First, they are orientated more around economic goals than political ones. Secondly there is broad support for ‘strong’ government. Powerful ‘ruling’ parties tend to be tolerated, and there is general respect for the state. Although, with low taxes, and relatively low public spending usually below 30 per cent of GDP (gross domestic product), there is little room for the western model of the welfare state, there is nevertheless general acceptance that the state as a ‘father figure’ should guide the decisions of private as well as public bodies, and draw up strategies for national development. This characteristic is accompanied, thirdly, by a general disposition to respect leaders because of the Confucian stress on loyalty, discipline and duty. Finally, great emphasis is placed on community and social cohesion, embodied in the central role accorded to the family. The resulting emphasis on what the Japanese call ‘group think’ restricts the scope for the assimilation of ideas such as individualism and human rights, at least as these are understood in the West.

Islamic regimes. The rise of Islam as a political force has had a profound effect on politics in North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. In some cases, militant Islamic groups have challenged existing regimes, often articulating the interests of the urban poor. Islam is not, however, and never has been, simply a region. Rather, it is a complete way of life, defining correct moral, political and economic behavior for individuals and nations alike. Political Islam aims at the construction of a theocracy in which political and other affairs are structured according to ‘higher’ religious principles. Nevertheless, political Islam has assumed clearly contrasting forms, ranging from fundamentalist to pluralist extremes.

Military regimes. Whereas most regimes are shared by a combination of political, economic, cultural and ideological factors, some survive through the exercise, above all, of military power and systematic repression. In this sense, military regimes belong to a broader category of authoritarianism. Military authoritarianism has been most common in Latin America, the Middle East, Africa and South East Asia, but it also emerged in the postwar period in Spain, Portugal and Greece. The key feature of a military regime is that the leading posts in the government are filled on the basis of the person’s position within the military chain of command. Normal political and constitutional arrangements are usually suspended, and institutions, through which opposition can be expressed, such as elected assemblies and free press, are either weakened or abolished.

Although all forms of military rule are deeply repressive, this classification encompasses a number of regime types. In some military regimes, the armed forces assume direct control of government. The classical form of this is the military junta, most commonly found in Latin America. This operates as a form of collective military government centered on a command council of officers who usually represent the three armed services: the army, navy and air force. The second form of military regime is a military-backed personalized dictatorship. In these cases, a single individual gains preeminence within the junta or regime. In the final form of military regime, the loyalty of the armed forces is the decisive factor that upholds the regime, but the military leaders content themselves with ‘pulling the strings’ behind the scenes.

 

1 Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following words and expressions.

Heartland, to acknowledge, multiparty elections, distinctive, consociational democracy, proportional representation, devolution, to unleash, distinct, to endure, to confront, consequence, social inequality, polyarchial institution, cohesion, to accord, theocracy, junta, military-backed personalized dictatorship.

 

2 Translate words and word combinations from Ukrainian into English and use them in your own sentences.

Ліберальна демократія, риса, представницька демократія, упереджений, погоджений, двопалатна система, білль про права, крах, ринкова економічна реформа, перехід, Міжнародний валютний фонд, невтручання, пропагувати, урахувати, цінність, валовий внутрішній продукт, послідовник конфуціанства, войовничий, авторитарний режим.

3 Complete the sentences.

1. The most crucial of these...

2. The central features...

3. Western polyarchies are...

4. One feature of postcommunist regimes...

5. A system of...

6. However, this interpretation...

7. First, liberal democracy...

8. They are marked...

9. Nevertheless, for the time being...

10. Certainly, the balance...

11. Most importantly...

12. Although, with low taxes...

13. The resulting emphasis...

14. Rather, it is...

15. The rise of Islam...

16. Nevertheless, political Islam...

17. Military authoritarianism...

18. Whereas most regimes...

19. The key feature...

20. This operates as a form...

21. In the final form of military...

22. The classical form...

 

4 Comprehension questions.

1. What is the difference between democracies and western poliarchies? Which of the terms is preferable in political science today?

2. What are the features of polyarchical regimes? What is the distinctive feature of Western polyarchies?

3. What are the differences between Western polyarchies?

4. What features are consensual or pluralistic tendencies associated with?

5. For what societies is a system of consociational democracy appropriate?

6. When did the postcommunist regimes appear? What does change mean for such states?

7. What makes postcommunist regimes unique?

8. What problems do postcommunist regimes face?

9. The collapse of communism unleashed a process of democratization. What are the central features of this process?

10. What are the differences between postcommunist regimes?

11. What are East Asian political regimes like? What is their foundation?

12. What role does Confucian system of values play in East Asian political regimes?

13. What is the role of Islam in North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia?

14. What principles is political Islam based on? What is the aim of political Islam with its particular features?

15. Where has military authoritarianism been most common?

16. What are the key features and forms of military regimes?

17. What are the key features and ruling classes in military regimes?

18. What is the military junta? On what principles does it operate?

19. What upholds the military regimes?

5 Say if the following statements are true according to the text.

1. Western polyarchies are equivalent to regimes categorized as ‘democracies’.

2. Japan and ‘new’ South Africa have strongly democratic features.

3. Liberal democracy is sometimes treated as a political ideology.

4. Polyarchical features include multiparty elections, representative democracy, and a capitalist economic organization.

5. A system of consociational democracy is appropriate to Western polyarchies.

6. A minority party system is characteristic of Western polyarchies.

7. A process of democratization in postcommunist regimes drew heavily on the western liberal model.

8. One feature of postcommunist regimes is the need to deal with the politico-cultural consequences of military rule.

9. Westernized countries of ‘central’ Europe are seen as advanced and the ‘eastern’ states are more backward.

10. East Asian political form is well known in political science.

11. The widespread assumption has been that modernization means westernization.

12. Polyarchial institutions function differently in an Asian context.

13. East Asian regimes are orientated more around political goals.

14. East Asian regimes see the state as a ‘father figure’.

15. Community and social cohesion are not important in East Asian regimes.

16. Islam has become a political force.

17. Islam is not simply a region. Rather, it is a complete way of life.

18. Political Islam aims at the construction of a dictatorship in which political and other affairs are structured according to ‘higher’ economic principles.

19. Military power and systematic repression help some regimes to survive.

20. The key feature of a military regime is that the leading posts in the government are filled on the basis of the person’s position within the military chain of command.

21. All forms of military rule are deeply democratic.

22. Collective military government is centered on a command council of officers.

23. The loyalty of the citizens is the decisive factor that upholds the regime.

 

Fill in the blanks, using the topical vocabulary of the Unit.