Unit 1. The Language of Law

4. Read the text about shoplifting and say if you find that the punishment fitted the committed crime.

 

 

SHOPS SEEM TO PUT TEMPTATION IN THE WAY

 

“I began shoplifting when I was 13,” says Cheryl, a student from Ipswich. I used to do it in my school lunch breaks because I didn’t have any money. The more I got away with it, the more I stole. I did it because it meant I had more things than I had before, and it gave me access to things I couldn’t usually afford. It became a habit and I used to dislike paying for anything. Some shops seem to put temptation in the way, and I used to feel they deserved to lose stock. My shoplifting never worried me, until I got caught. That was really frightening – such a shock, because it just seemed like a game before. The store detective blocked the exit and took me to the manager’s office. Then the police came. That was the worst bit, being marched through the shopping centre in the middle of town. It’s the most embarrassing thing that’s ever happened to me. The police gave me a big lecture and kept saying things like, “Shoplifting is wrong, you shouldn’t do it. What will your parents think? You’ll grow up into an awful person!” I was a bag of nerves, really shaking and scared. My dad was really cool about it when he came down to witness my statement but my mum was very disappointed. I had to return goods – some bottles of perfume – and got a verbal caution. If it happens again, I’ll get fined, but I haven’t stolen since. It totally put me off and I am so worried I couldn’t shoplift anything now.”

5. Here is the story of a very unfortunate, irresponsible man called Mr. N. E. Body. Imagine that he was stopped by the police at each and every point of the drama. Read about what happened and, after each piece of information you receive, decide what punishment he deserves.

Here are some of the sentences you might wish to hand out:

 

You might feel the death penalty is in order, or life imprisonment, even solitary confinement. You could put him on probation, give him community service or impose a fine – anything from 10 pounds to 1000 pounds. You might consider corporal punishment (a short, sharp shock), a shortish prison sentence or, of course, you could make that a suspended sentence. You might make him pay compensation, or would you like to see him banned from driving? No? Well, his licence could be endorsed. Or would you dismiss the case, find him not guilty of any crime, acquit him, find the case not proved?

 

1. Mr. Body drank five pints of beer and five single whiskies in a pub, got into his car and drove away.
2. He did not drive dangerously but exceeded the speed limit,as he wanted to catch up with a friend who had left his wallet in the pub.
3. As he was driving along, a little girl ran into the road and he knocked her down.
4. There was no way he could have stopped, drunk or sober.
5. The little girl suffered only bruises and superficial injuries.
6. Mr. Body’s wife had left him two days before.
7. Six month later, it was clear that the little girl was to suffer from after-effects of the accident and would stutter for many years.
8. Mr. Body had never previously received any summons for traffic offences.
9. The little girl admitted that it was all her fault.
10. The passenger in Mr. Body’s car was killed outright as he went through the windscreen.

6. Write or discuss the answers to these questions.

1. Which aspect of the law seem unsatisfactory to you?
2. What punishments would you, as a judge, give for the crimes in Practice 1? You may need to specify cases and give particular instances.
3. How have criminals been portrayed in films you have seen recently? Were the criminals portrayed as heroes, idiots or evil individuals?
4. What – in detail – would happen to you in your country if you were caught:

a) Speeding in your car?

b) In possession f soft drugs?

c) With a gun in your pocket?

d) Breaking into a house?

7. Write a judge’s summing up after a trial, reminding the jury of the witnesses’ testimony and advising them on how to reach their verdict.

 

8. You have just read an article supporting corporal punishment with the headline “A short, sharp shock is the only answer for most of today’s criminals”. Write to the newspaper, putting the opposite view and criticizing what was probably in the article.

 

9. Read the following dialogue and act it out:

Policeman: - Good evening, sir. I’d like to ask you a few questions, if you don’t mind.

Suspect: - By all means, officer – only too glad to help you if I can. But I know nothing about it.

Policeman: - About what?

Suspect: - About the murder that someone committed next door two nights ago, of course.

Policeman: - Hm! Did you hear anything unusual that night?

Suspect: - Oh, no! I heard nothing at all.

Policeman: - Did you see anything out of ordinary?

Suspect: - No, I saw nothing, officer.

Policeman: - Did you speak to anybody that evening?

Suspect: - No, nobody. I was sitting here watching television. I was minding my own business.

Policeman: - So murder isn’t your business, sir? Someone fired five shots with a revolver, but you heard nothing… A man ran through that door five minutes after the crime, but you saw nothing and spoke to no one … Yet you say that you sat in that chair the whole evening and went nowhere … It all sounds very suspicious to me, sir. Have you anything to add?

Suspect: - Nothing at all.

Policeman: - Then I have no more questions to ask … but you won’t get away with it.

Suspect: - What was that?

Policeman: - We shall proceed with our enquiries, sir.

 

 

UNIT 3

 

The causes of crime

 

1. Match the following headings with the sections of the text below:

 

· Psychological and psychiatric theories

· Biological theories

· Multiple causation theory

· Social environment theories

· Theological and ethical theories

· Climatic theory

 

(1) No one knows why crime occurs. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, is that criminals are perverse persons who deliberately commit crimes or who do so at the instigation of the devil or other evil spirits. Although this idea has been discarded by modern criminologists, it persists among uninformed people and provides the rationale for the harsh punishments still meted out to criminals in many parts of the world.

 

(2) Since the 18^th century, various scientific theories have been advanced to explain crime. One of the first efforts to explain crime on scientific, rather than theological, grounds was made at the end of the 18^th century by the German physician and anatomist Franz Joseph Gall, who tried to establish relationships between skull structure and criminal proclivities. This theory, popular during the 19^th century, is now discredited and has been abandoned. A more sophisticated theory – a biological one – was developed late in the 19^th century by the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who asserted that crimes were committed by persons who are born with certain recognizable hereditary physical traits. Lombroso’s theory was disproved early in 20^th century by the British criminologist Charles Goring. Goring’s comparative study of jailed criminals and law-abiding persons established that so-called criminal types, with innate dispositions to crime, do not exist. Resent scientific studies have tended to confirm Goring’s findings. Some investigators still hold, however, that specific abnormalities of the brain and of the endocrine system contribute to a person’s inclination toward criminal activity.

 

(3) Another approach to an explanation of crime was initiated by the French political philosopher Montesquieu, who attempted to relate criminal behavior to natural or physical environment. His successors have gathered evidence tending to show that crimes against persons, such as homicide, are relatively more numerous in warm climates, whereas crimes against property, such as theft, are more frequent in colder regions. Other studies seem to indicate that the incidence of crime declines in direct ratio to drops in barometric pressure, to increased humidity, and to higher temperature.

 

(4) Many prominent criminologists of the 19^th century, particularly those associated with the Socialist movement, attributed crime mainly to the influence of poverty. They pointed out that persons who are unable to provide adequately for themselves and their families through normal legal channels are frequently driven to theft, burglary, prostitution, and other offences. The incidence of crime especially tends to rise in times of widespread unemployment. Present-day criminologists take a broader and deeper view; they place the blame for most crimes on the whole range of environmental conditions associated with poverty. The living conditions of the poor, particularly of those in slums, are characterized by overcrowding, lack of privacy, inadequate play space and recreational facilities, and poor sanitation. Such conditions engender feelings of deprivation and hopelessness and are conducive to crime as a means of escape. The feeling is encouraged by the example set by those who have escaped to what appears to be the better way of life made possible by crime.

Some theorists relate the incidence of crime to the general sate of a culture, especially the impact of economic crises, wars, and revolutions and the general sense of insecurity and uprootedness to which these forces give rise. As a society becomes more unsettled and its people more restless and fearful of the future, the crime rate tends to rise. This is particularly true of juvenile crime, as the experience of the United States since World War II has made evident.

 

(5) The final major groups of theories are psychological and psychiatric. Studies by such 20^th century investigators as the American criminologist Bernard Glueck and the British Psychiatrist William Healy have indicated that about one-fourth of a typical convict population is psychotic, neurotic, or emotionally unstable and another one-fourth is mentally deficient. These emotional and mental conditions do not automatically make people criminals, but do, it is believed, make them more prone to criminality. Resent studies of criminals have thrown further light on the kinds of emotional disturbances that may lead to criminal behavior.

 

(6) Since the mid-20^th century, the notion that crime can be explained by any single theory has fallen into disfavour among investigators. Instead, experts incline to so-called multiple factor, or multiple causation theories. They reason that crime springs from a multiplicity of conflicting and converging influences – biological, psychological, cultural, economic and political. The multiple causation explanations seem more credible than the earlier, simple theories. An understanding of the causes of crime is still elusive, however, because the interrelationship of causes is difficult to determine.

 

2. Write down Russian equivalents for the words and expressions in bold type, given in the text above.

 

3. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following words and expressions and reproduce the context in which they were used:

1. мошенничество

2. кража

3. убийство

4. кража с взломом

5. сравнительный анализ преступников и законопослушных граждан

6. соотнести преступное поведение с факторами окружающей среды

7. преступления против человека

8. преступления против собственности

9. совершать преступления умышленно

10. некоторые узнаваемые наследуемые черты

11. выдающиеся учёные-криминологи

12. ряд условий

13. уровень преступности

14. быть склонным к преступной деятельности

15. пролить свет на проблему

16. теория многообразия факторов

17. достоверная теория

 

4. Find in the text all word combinations with the following words:

research study theory

· Reproduce the contexts in which they were used. Make up your own sentences with these words.

 

5. Answer the following questions:

1. What concepts formed the basis of the earliest criminological theories?

2. How did the biological theories develop?

3. What was Montesquieu’s approach to causes of crime?

4. What view on crime predominated in the 19^th century?

5. How did criminological theories develop in the 20^th century?

6. What is the relationship between the mental and emotional state of a person and his or her inclinations to crime?

7. What are the latest views on the causes of crime?

 

6. Render the following passage into English paying special attention to the words and expressions in bold type:

 

Преступность и её причины

Преступность и её причины могут быть изучены на индивидуальном, групповом и социальном уровнях. Им, следовательно, могут быть даны психологическое, социологическое и философское объяснения. Эти объяснения не противоречат друг другу, а дополняют одно другое, позволяя проанализировать причины преступности с различных сторон.

Рассматривая эту проблему на индивидуальном уровне, можно обозначить причины преступности как конфликт поведения человека с социальной средой.

Когда человек попадает в проблемную ситуацию, он часто не находит решения возникших сложностей и выбирает преступный путь.

Но возникает естественный вопрос: а почему личность формируется таким образом? И почему возникают проблемные ситуации, ставящие человека перед трудным выбором? Ответить на эти вопросы невозможно, если не обратиться к изучению современного общества. При этом очевидно, что в качестве причин преступности выступают и социально-экономические, и политические, и духовные факторы, тесно связанные друг с другом.

Обстоятельствами, ведущими к преступному поведению, считаются: антиобщественное поведение родителей; алкоголизм и нервно-психические заболевания родителей; низкий уровень культуры в семье.

Негативными особенностями личности и поведения считаются: прежняя судимость; совершение иных противоправных поступков; негативное отношение к нравственным ценностям; злобность, грубость и мстительность; пьянство, употребление наркотиков, азартные игры.

Итак, после того, как мы узнали о криминологии достаточно многое, нетрудно заключить, что преступность может возникнуть на основе взаимодействия личности и социальной среды.

 

7. Debate. Read the information below and use it in preparing the following task.

 

What is a debate?

A debate is a formal, organized argument. It revolves around a motion, usually given in the affirmative, on which a vote is taken. The debate is organized by time and by a set of procedures. It is conducted by a chairperson (the Chair).

Two opposing sides try to convince a third party (the audience) that each party’s argument has more merit than the other. The affirmative team asks the audience to accept the motion; the negative team asks the audience to reject it. At the end of the debate the audience votes for or against the motion.

The affirmative team consists of a proposer and a seconder. The negative team consists of an opposer and a seconder.

Before you start a debate you can work in small groups drawing a plan of your classroom showing how you could arrange a debate in it. Decide which arrangement you’ll use.

The language in a debate is always very formal. The expressions below are examples of the phrases one can use when debating.

 

· The motion before the house today is “This house believes that the present prison system should be abolished.”

· I’d like to introduce you to the team which is going to speak in favour of the motion/to oppose the motion. Their names are Maria Gomez and Mr. Peter von Mark.

· I would now like to call on Miss Maria Gomez to present the case for the motion.

· Before presenting my arguments in favour of the motion, I would like to present important background information.

· The debate is now open to the floor.

· The first speaker said…

· Mr. Chairman/ Madam Chairman, I would like to ask the first speaker why…

· I call on the audience to behave in an orderly manner.

· Would members of the audience please raise their hands if they are voting in favour of/ against the motion.

· I declare that the motion has been carried/defeated.

 

Preparing a debate.

 

When a motion is first suggested for debate, it is important that all terms are carefully defined by both sides. If this is not done, he debate can become pointless because the two teams have a different understanding of the key terms.

Decide who is going to be the team proposing the motion and who is the team opposing it. (Notice that you do not need to choose according to your conviction – in fact, it can be more interesting for you to argue a point of view you do not actually hold.)

The two teams will now prepare their presentation independently of each other. Each of the four speakers will have five minutes in which to speak.

 

Both teams should:

· consider the background to the motion (even though it will be for the proposer of the motion to present this in the debate);

· remember that the essence of debate is finding holes in your opponents’ arguments and finding ways of showing that these holes exist;

· predict the arguments that the other team will come up with and be ready with rebuttals;

· decide on your strategy, e.g. will you rebut arguments before or after they are offered?

· plan how to divide what you want to say between the proposer/opposer and the seconder.

You may use any sources (books, etc.) you wish and bring these with you to the debate.

 

The debate.

Procedure.

The debate is conducted by the Chair. The Chair is responsible for the smooth running of the debate. The chair is also responsible for making on-the-spot decisions about any unpredicted problems that arise during the debate.

 

The Chair:

· announces the motion for debate, introduces the speakers to the audience and explains the procedure.

· asks the team proposing the motion to define the terms in the motion. The opposing team are asked whether they accept these definitions.

· tells the speakers that they will each have five minutes in which to present their case that the Chair will warn them when the five minutes are almost up by passing them a message on a piece of paper. The speakers are invited to speak in the following order:

1. the proposer of the motion

2. the opposer of the motion

3. the seconder for the motion

4. the seconder against the motion.

· invites questions from the floor (reminding them that the questions must be put through the Chair), setting a time-limit of five minutes.

· invites each team to sum up its arguments. (This should be a quick summary of the arguments which the other side has not successfully countered.)

· asks the floor to vote for or against the motion.

· counts the vote.

· declares the motion carried or defeated.

 

Voting.

The members of the audience should vote according to their assessment of each team’s performance, rather than their personal attitude to the motion. They should use copies of this table to make their assessment of each speaker. Each feature should be rated from 1 to 5 where 1=very poor and 5 =excellent.

 

Persuasiveness, including sincerity and conviction with which speech is delivered	1 2 3 4 5
Imaginativeness of arguments	1 2 3 4 5
Language competence	1 2 3 4 5
Attitude towards debate	1 2 3 4 5

 

If the vote is equal for and against the motion, the Chair has the casting vote.

 

Timing.

The whole debate should last about forty to forty five minutes. This allows the speakers five minutes for each speech; five minutes for questions from the floor; about ten minutes for procedural matters including the final vote.

 

After the debate.

When the debate is over, the speakers may like to state their true position regarding the motion. Members of the audience may like to say whether their opinion was changed by the speakers’ arguments. The evaluations of each speaker may also be discussed.

 

8. Following all the stages mentioned above prepare a debate.

All criminals are perverse people

· Prepare your arguments for or against the statements above.

· Use the active vocabulary from the Unit.

· Divide into two groups – pro and con, and conduct a debate.

· Appoint the ‘Chair’ of the debate who will give the floor to the speakers of both teams.

 

9. Read the text and write down the Russian equivalents for the words and expressions in bold type:

Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)

Professor Lombroso is a criminologist whose views, though not altogether correct, caused a lot of interest and made other people look into the problem of crime in a more scientific way. He is regarded as the father of the scientific study of criminals, or criminology.

Lombroso studied in the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris, and later he became a professor of psychiatry and forensic medicine, a director of a mental asylum.

In an enormous book called The Criminal, he set out the idea that there is a definite criminal type, who can be recognized by his or her appearance. Some of what he said is difficult to believe. For example, he said that a left-handed person have a criminal instinct. Among the things he considered important were the shape of the head, colour of the hair, the eyes, the curve of the chin and forehead and if the ears stick out.

Lombroso’s theories were widely influential in Europe for a time, but his emphasis on hereditary causes of crime was later strongly rejected in favour of environmental factors. Lombroso tried to reform the Italian penal system, and he encouraged more humane and constructive treatment of convicts through the use of work programs intended to make them more productive members of society.

 

9. Complete the following text with the words from the box. Translate the text:

 

	Criminal types; capital punishment; inmates; case studies; upbringing; investigations; suspended; multiple; unthinkable; rehabilitative

 

Cesare Lombroso, professor of psychiatry and anthropology at the University of Turin, sought through firsthand observation and measurement of prison _____ to determine the characteristics of _____ _____. Some of his _____ allowed him to establish the existence of ‘hereditary criminals’. Lombroso held that such criminals exhibit a higher percentage of physical and mental anomalies than do non-criminals. Among these anomalies, were various unusual skull sizes and asymmetries of the facial bones.

Other scholars helped to introduce the ideas that crime has _____ causes and that most criminals are not born criminals but are shaped by their _____ and associations. Thus, the emphasis in criminology had turned to experimental _____ _____ and to preventive and _____ measures. Without this contribution into the scientific study of criminals the present day alternatives to _____ and old-fashioned imprisonment such as probation, _____ sentence, fines, and parole would have been _____.

 

10. Answer the following questions:

 

1. What is Cesare Lombroso famous for?

2. How did he try to relate criminal behaviour to a person’s appearance?

3. What was Lombroso’s contribution to the development of penal system?

 

11. Render the following article into English paying special attention to the words and expressions in bold type:

 

Преступниками рождаются или становятся?

Преступность: Врождённое и Приобретённое

 

Более ста лет назад итальянский врач Чезаре Ломброзо создал галерею «преступных типов», чем обессмертил своё имя. Он, например, утверждал, что покатый лоб, квадратный подбородок, грубые черты лица, длинные руки и мускулистое телосложение говорят о врождённых преступных наклонностях.

Понадобилось много лет, пока теория прирождённого преступника потеряла своё влияние. Тем не менее, и в наши дни продолжаются споры о наследовании преступных качеств и о биологических предпосылках преступного поведения.

Послевоенный экономический рост породил у западных лидеров опасное заблуждение, что с любыми общественными проблемами можно справиться, проводя соответствующую социальную политику и увеличивая бюджетные отчисления. Тогда казалось, что, давая человеку больше благ, можно смягчить и даже изменить его природу. Времена изменились, и стало ясно, что ни либеральные реформы, ни коммунистический диктат не привели к обществу процветания.

В 1979 году в Центре изучения близнецов и усыновлённых детей в США начали наблюдать несколько сотен двойняшек и тройняшек. Все они были разлучены вскоре после рождения и воспитывались в разных концах Англии и Америки. Экспериментаторы исходили из предположения, что, если близнецы однояйцевые, все различия, возникшие впоследствии, следует отнести за счёт разной среды обитания. Однако исследования показали, что различия между детьми, воспитанными раздельно, и близнецами, росшими в одной семье, практически отсутствуют.

Другое исследование, проведённое в Дании, показало, что дети преступников, даже если их воспитывать в домах добропорядочных граждан, в большей степени склонны к конфликтам с законом, чем их собственные отпрыски. Более того, есть все основания считать, что, если один из разлученных однояйцевых близнецов имеет судимость за уголовное преступление, второй рано или поздно тоже свернёт на скользкую дорожку.

Некоторые исследователи идут ещё дальше и считают, что первопричина многих видов правонарушения, в первую очередь таких тяжких, как убийства, разбойные нападения, изнасилования и поджоги – не социальная, а биологическая.

Самый серьёзный удар по «теории о среде» нанесла сравнительно молодая наука – социобиология. Исследования, проводимые на животных, показали, что у агрессивных обезьян уровень одного из гормонов – серотонина – ниже, чем у пассивных. Это, вполне возможно, относится и к человеку: у людей, совершивших преднамеренные насильственные преступления, тоже наблюдается недостаток этого гормона.

Так кто же виноват: среда или генетика?

 

12. Read the following text and choose the most appropriate heading for each of its parts.

· Nature-nurture controversy.

· Social factors.

· Causes and effects.

· Society’s response.

· Gangs and group crimes.

· Types of delinquent behaviour.

 

Juvenile Delinquency.

 

Childhood is a time of joy and innocence for most people: for others, life turns violent and so do they. Criminal acts of young persons are referred to broadly as juvenile delinquency. In some countries delinquency includes conduct that is antisocial, dangerous, or harmful to the goals of society. The general tendency is to limit the term to activities that if carried out by an adult would be called crimes, but in the United States since the 1980s juvenile delinquents are often referred to as “youthful offenders”. The age at which juveniles legally become adults varies from country to country, but it generally ranges from 15 to 18.Clearly the problem has skyrocketed: for example, in 1990 rates of arrest in California for burglary, theft, car theft, arson and robbery are higher among juveniles than among adults.

Sociological research has established such bases for predicting delinquent behaviour as the nature of a child’s home environment, the quality of the child’s neighbourhood, and behaviour in school. It has never been conclusively proved, however, that delinquency can be either predicted or prevented. It is far likelier that delinquency is an integral part of society and probably part of maturation process that some children go through.

1.____________________________

For the majority of young offenders, delinquency seems to be a phase passed through on the way to adulthood. Delinquent acts begin at about age of 10 or 11, though there has been a substantial increase in even younger offenders in recent years. The most serious activities peak at 14 or 15 years of age and then begin to decline for the next several years. The exceptions to this generalization are some older youths who get involved in car theft, robbery, burglary, and even murder. They may well become adult criminals. For the majority delinquent activities gradually decrease and may cease altogether as young people enter their 20s and face the prospect of full-time work and marriage. It does seem to be true, however, that the earlier in life delinquent activities are begun, the likelier it is that the pattern will persist – particularly in offenders who are convicted and sentenced to juvenile correction institutions.

2.____________________________

There has been much controversy among psychologists and sociologists in the late 20^th century concerning whether some people are genetically disposed to crime or whether illegal acts have their origin in one’s upbringing and environment. There is evidence to support both views. Those who believe it probable that there is a genetic disposition to crime have noted certain physical and personality differences between delinquents and non-delinquents. Delinquents have been found to have sturdier bodies and to act in a more aggressive way than non-delinquents. In their personality traits, delinquents are more extroverted, narcissistic, and impulsive, and less able to delay the satisfaction of desires. Some psychologists believe that there is an inherited flaw in the genetic makeup of a criminal that leads to rejection of society’s standards. Others note that many violent prisoners have higher than normal levels of the male sex hormone testosterone.

The contrary opinion tends to view delinquents as not substantially different from the remainder of the population. Not all sturdily built individuals, for instance, become criminals; many make their living as athletes or in a variety of professions. Studies in Great Britain have shown that delinquents tend to come from families where there is tension and much difficulty in interpersonal relationships. Family breakdown is also found to be a significant factor. The United States Bureau of Justice Statistics reports that in the late 1980s, about 70 per cent of the juveniles in state reform institutions grew up in single parent (usually with the mother as head of household) or no-parent families.

Many delinquents come from homes where the parents abuse alcohol or drugs or are themselves criminals. Poverty, physical and verbal abuse, parents with little respect for themselves, and erratic discipline patterns emerge as contributing factors in such research. Beatings by parents or others can cause injuries to the brain, which in turn frequently cause neurological problems, paranoia, hallucinations or violent behaviour.

3.___________________________

In the United States, Europe, and Japan, most delinquents are boys, though since the early 1980s the number of delinquents who are girls has risen dramatically. Most of these in the United States come from the lower middle class and the poorest segments of society. One reason for this is the low esteem in which education is often held in these groups. Schooling seems boring and unchallenging, and the delinquent rebels against it by cutting classes or disrupting them and eventually may drop out altogether – as more then one quarter of teens did by the early 1990s. Such youths find in each other’s company a compensation for their educational failure by rejecting the social values to which they are supposed to adhere. To make up for this failure, and finding their job marked limited, they live dangerously and show contempt for authority.

Many parents, educators, and others blame the violence found in many movies and television shows, rap music and heavy-metal rock lyrics, and comic books, as well as the economic aspirations and goals of society itself. The signs of affluence that children in the poor and working classes see about them – money, power, and a large array of consumer goods – make them desperately want some of these things even though they may feel they will never be able to afford them.

Delinquency among middle-class youth has not been adequately researched, therefore its causes are even less clear. One theory suggests that for some boys it is a form of masculine protest against the mother figure in many middle-class homes. This may be true when the father is away at work most of the time and has little contact with his children in free time. In places where drug abuse has become more common, crime has often increased.

4._____________________________

Traditionally, delinquency meant offences such as truancy, assault, theft, arson, or vandalism. In recent decades more violent crimes by teens became more common, especially for those who traffic in drugs or are addicted and commit crimes to support their habits. Bigotry could be seen in teens of all races; one example is the rise of white-supremacist gangs called skinheads. In the United States the Federal Bureau of Investigation reported that for the period 1985-89 homicide arrests for those under age 18 rose 67 per cent, compared with a 12 per cent rise for those 18 or older. Sexual crimes also dramatically increased, with date rape one of the most common of adolescent sexual crimes. All the more troubling is the fact that the number of teenagers in the country decreases during the time.

5.______________________________

The cliché that “birds of feather flock together” has special relevance for the social situation of delinquents. Alienated from society, they tend to form groups. Although non-delinquent teenagers also form gangs, delinquents are far likelier to do so. They are impelled by the need to belong and are drawn by the sense of security that a gang offers its members. In belonging to a gang there is a solidarity that an individual fails to find as a loner in society. Gang subculture has its own standards, obligations and rights. It may also have its own dress code.

Not all teens involved in a crime together are acting as a gang, however. In a well-publicized incident in 1989 a group of youths ages 14 to 16 raped and nearly murdered a young woman jogging in New York City’s Central Park; they said they were “wilding,” roaming the park with o purpose but to create havoc and hurt people. Many schools are no safer than the streets; by 1990 it was estimated that more than three million incidents of attempted street crime (assault, rape, robbery, or theft) occur in schools or on school property each year. As more students carry weapons, more schools have instituted tough security measures.

6._____________________________

Society tries to deal with youthful offenders in a variety of ways. The most common unofficial means are through school counseling and sessions with psychologists and psychiatrists. Social workers who deal with family problems also attempt to sort out the differences of young potential delinquents.

Serious offences are dealt with officially by the police and the courts. Because of nature of come offences committed by juveniles, there has been a tendency to try them in court as adults for certain crimes, especially for murder. The juvenile courts attempt to steer young people away from a life of crime, though the most serious offences normally result in periods of confinement in juvenile halls or prisons for younger criminals. If possible, however, the courts try more lenient methods of probation, juvenile aftercare, or foster care.

Probation means that the court suspends sentence and releases the offender on the condition of good behaviour, subject to certain rules and under the supervision of the court. Probation is frequently granted to first-time offenders.

Sometimes in order to avoid bringing a case before the court, informal probation under supervision of a probation officer is prescribed. Probation has proved to be the most successful way of dealing with very young offenders.

Juvenile aftercare is the equivalent of parole for an older criminal; it takes place after the young person has been released from an institution and is supervised by a youth counselor. The purpose of aftercare is to promote readjustment to society.

In foster care the juvenile is placed in a stable family situation with the hope that he will adjust the positive values of society. It is often part of an effort to prevent institutionalisation.

 

13. Debate:

· What are the backgrounds of juvenile delinquency?

· Is juvenile delinquency a vital topic in your country?

· What types of juvenile delinquency are there in your country?

 

14. Read the following text and render it into English:

 

Убийца по рождению

Передаётся ли склонность к преступлениям по наследству? Может быть, ген преступности реально существует? Тем более в нашей стране, где в тюрьме побывал каждый третий взрослый житель?

 

Учёные уходят от ответа.

Из 35 тысяч человеческих генов пока удалось «прочитать» только 5 тысяч. Сейчас учёные могут с уверенностью сказать, какая группа генов отвечает за наследственные внешние признаки, старение, предрасположенность к тем или иным заболеваниям и даже за психические особенности. Логично предположить, что зловредные гены, которые толкают человека на злодейство, всё-таки существуют.

Ещё лет двадцать назад врач тюремных больниц Ленинградской области Л. Петров исследовал кровь заключённых. У него не было технической возможности «познакомиться» с генами, поэтому учёный проверял на связь с криминальностью хромосомы. Выяснилось, что заметный процент заключённых-мужчин имеют дополнительную хромосому Y, которая в норме отвечает за традиционно мужские качества, в том числе силу, агрессию, стремление быть первым и лучшим. Т. е. предрасположенность к жёсткому лидерству заложена у этих заключённых, что называется, в крови. Но… были сделаны и другие наблюдения. Обладатели лишней Y-хромосомы отличались от остальных по…внешнему виду – они были более высокого роста, более сильные и выносливые. Поэтому их социальная адаптация была затруднена. Тем более, что практически все они воспитывались в неполных или неблагополучных семьях.

Не так давно зарубежными учёными был проведён любопытный опыт над мышами. Животным ввели препарат, который выключил определённую группу генов. Подопытные мыши превратились в забитых существ, которые сидели в дальнем углу клетки и шарахались от собственной тени. Между тем как их «товарки», которым препарат не вводили, поведения своего не изменили и продолжали так же агрессивно относиться к человеку. По аналогии можно предположить, что гены, отвечающие за агрессию, существуют и у людей. «На самом деле не всё так просто, - считает член-корреспондент РАН Илья Захаров-Гезехус, - большинство генов до сих пор не изучены. Известно, что некоторые «дремлют» до определённого периода. Вообще же многие гены начинают «работать» под действием гормонов. Соответственно под действием резкого выплеска адреналина могут внезапно «включиться» гены агрессии, жестокости. И то, как человек поступит в такой экстренной ситуации, целиком зависит от его воспитания».

Учёные крайне осторожны в выводах: не говорят ни окончательного «да», ни чёткого «нет». «Конкретного гена или, правильнее говорить, группы генов, которые толкали бы на преступления, нет, - уверен Илья Захаров-Гезехус. – можно говорить только о предрасположенности человека к различного рода правонарушениям. Во многом это обусловлено тем, что психические особенности – и это наукой доказано – передаются по наследству. Соответственно у людей с неустойчивой психикой рождаются дети, которые тоже не могут адекватно реагировать на ситуацию. Не говоря уже о психических заболеваниях, которые также передаются по наследству. На мой взгляд, правильнее говорить не о «гене преступности», а о генах, отвечающих за отдельные качества, которые могут подтолкнуть к преступлениям, - агрессивности, экспрессивности, жестокости. Но опять-таки – очень многое зависит от человека, его воспитания, социальной и культурной среды, в которой он рос. Он может пойти на поводу у своих слабостей, а может им и дать отпор».

Доктор юридических наук, специалист ВНИИ МВД Юрий Антонян тоже считает, что ответственность за преступления целиком лежит на конкретном человеке: «Гена преступности не существует. Отчасти это доказывается тем, что человек не рождается сформировавшейся личностью, так же как он и не рождается личностью преступной. Он становится ею в силу социального воздействия. Биологи выяснили, что люди, совершившие тяжкие преступления, обладают рядом биологических особенностей. Но никто не смог доказать, что эти биологические особенности передаются по наследству. С другой стороны, говорить, что человек с рождения – «чистый лист» бумаги, тоже нельзя. Он рождается с определённой предрасположенностью. Если у ребёнка родители были алкоголиками или наркоманами, вполне возможно, что и у него есть влечение к алкоголю или наркотикам. А люди, употребляющие наркотики и алкоголь, имеют большую склонность к совершению преступлений».

 

Взгляд практиков.

Безусловно, у каждого преступления есть социальная подноготная. Как правило, отношение к тем или иным явлениям формируется у ребёнка с детства. Например, в 80-х гг. в Казани мальчиков специально готовили к уличным боям. Избить противника или даже убить считалось не преступлением, а нормой выживания в рабочих кварталах. Примерно такой же моральный настрой существует сейчас у скинхедов. Как нам сказал сотрудник «молодёжного» отдела МУРа, иногда объяснить ребёнку и взрослому, что он совершает преступление невозможно: «У каждого народа свои культурные традиции. Мы постоянно боремся с таджиками-попрошайками, которые искренне не понимают, за что их задерживают. Пытаемся объяснить, что они совершают противоправные действия, а они смотрят на нас невинными глазами и говорят: «Послушай, чем мы виноваты? У нас все так делают. Мы семью кормим». – «Так хоть бы детей пожалели, не приучали их». «Ничего. Пусть тоже деньги зарабатывают». То же самое и цыганами. Смошенничать, вытащить кошелёк – у них в крови».

Традиции семьи также серьёзно влияют на подсознание ребёнка. «Что такое хорошо и что такое плохо» маленький человек усваивает от родителей. Если, предположим, отец попал в тюрьму и рассказывает о своих «подвигах», сын воспринимает их как вполне нормальные действия. Как нам объяснила детский психотерапевт Елена Вроно: «Говорить однозначно о том, что ребёнок в семье, где один из родителей совершил преступление, также совершит противоправное действие, нельзя. Но у него больше для этого предпосылок, как с психологической, так и с социальной точки зрения. Допустим, ребёнок привязан к отцу или матери-преступнице, которых все осуждают. Для него это травма. Желание защитить их может привести к неадекватным действиям. Осуждение обществом может привести к тому, что ребёнок подсознательно начнёт идентифицировать себя с родителями: они меня любили, они хорошие и поступали правильно, а все остальные мне вредят, меня не любят и абсолютно не правы».

 

Ближе к жизни.

Сейчас научными «разработками» в области «гена преступности» учёные в мире не занимаются. Во-первых, потому что «заказа» на такого рода исследования никто не предлагал. Большинство научных светил пытаются «познакомиться» с генами, которые имеют чисто практическое значение - ген старения, старческого слабоумия или же предрасположенность к онкологическим заболеваниям. Во-вторых, из-за боязни: если существование «гена преступности» подтвердится, непонятно, как станут относиться к людям, имеющим тягу к преступлениям «в крови».

 

15. Debate:

Criminality – Inborn or Acquired?

· Divide into two groups – pro and con, and conduct a debate on the origins of criminality.

· Appoint the ‘Chair’ of the debate who will give the floor to the speakers of both teams.

· Use the active vocabulary from the Unit.

 

Unit 1. The Language of Law