The position of writing in foreign language teaching

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Speaking and writing

Speaking about writing as a separate skill, we have already mentioned that its function is often to reinforce new language learned orally. At this point, it might be a good idea to make some comparison between written and spoken English. This is particularly so since the differences imply different types of exercises, which focus on different aspects of language. At the same time, these differences demand different levels of correctness.

What helps a speaker speak

Speakers have a great range of expressive possibilities at their command. Apart from the actual words they use, the speakers can vary their intonation and stress. This helps the speakers show which part of what they are saying is most important. By varying the pitch and intonation in their voice, the speakers can clearly convey their attitude to what they are saying. They can indicate interest or lack of it and they can show whether they wish to be taken seriously.

At any point in a speech event speakers can rephrase what they are saying. They can speed up or slow down. This is often done in response to the feedback they are getting from their listeners. The listeners will show to speakers through a variety of gestures, expressions and interruptions what they do not understand. In case of a face-to-face interchange, the speaker can use the whole range of facial expressions, gestures and general body language to help convey the message.

Not all the speakers have the benefit of such immediate listener feedback. Speakers on the phone have to rely on the words and on the use of intonation, pitch and stress only. They are not able to see all the visual clues that would help them know what the other person was thinking.

10.1.2. Writing: Accuracy comes first

Perhaps, the single most important difference between writing and speaking concerns the need for accuracy. Native speakers constantly make ‘mistakes’ when they are speaking. They hesitate and say the same thing in different ways. They often change the subject of what they are saying in mid-sentence. Except in extremely formal situations, this is considered normal and acceptable behaviour. However, a piece of writing with mistakes and half-finished sentences would be judged by many native speakers as illiterate since it is expected that writing should be ‘correct’. From the point of view of language teaching, therefore, there is often far greater pressure for written accuracy than there is for accuracy in speaking.

The writer also suffers from the disadvantage of not getting immediate feedback from the reader and sometimes getting no feedback at all. Writers cannot use intonation and stress. Facial expression, gestures and body movement are also denied them. These disadvantages have to be compensated by greater clarity and by the use of grammatical and stylistic techniques for focusing the reader’s attention on main points, ideas and so on.

Perhaps most importantly, there is a greater need for logical organisation in a piece of writing than in a conversation. This is so because the reader has to understand what has been written without asking for clarification or relying on the writer’s tone of voice and expression.

The position of writing in foreign language teaching

10.2.1. What is writing?

The term ‘writing’ is generally referred to writing per se (=proper) and writing for communication (=written speech or composition). Writing denotes written word production. Teaching writing includes teaching writing technique (handwriting, spelling, punctuation) and teaching written speech (that is, written discourse of different levels = annotation, essay, exposition, composition). In other words, teaching writing means teaching the ability to express one’s thoughts and ideas in written form in English. Both writing technique and written communication are the realisations of productive written speech. Receptive written speech is realised in reading.

Written word in any language is the most stable graphic system that undergoes changes least of all. The graphic system is understood as the constellation of letters, letter-combinations and diactrical signs(= apostrophes and the like), realised in print and script. Orthography is a system of rules applied to the usage of script (= written signs) while writing words. Productive written speech is a complex use of graphic, orthographic, lexical-grammatical and stylistic means, which allow for expressing thoughts and for communicating. Both graphic habits, realised in handwriting, and orthographic habits, realised in spelling, are developed at the level of a lexical item. At the same time, the objects of written speech study are a sentence, a paragraph and a connected text as elements of written discourse.

Written speech is used as a separate form of communication. Being a separate skill, nevertheless, does not make writing a lesser skill. Mastering written speech is based on oral speech acquisition. The terminal behaviour in written communication depends on the type of educational establishment. Final goals to be achieved by the learners are fixed in a syllabus for a certain type of establishment. The syllabus defines the requirements in the level of English to be reached. The syllabus requirements define the role and position of writing in the teaching process.

10.2.2. Writing: Syllabus requirements

The graduate of a foreign language department should qualify for advanced language performance. He is to master both receptive and productive forms of written speech. He should be able to take notes of what is said or has been written by other people. Among other skills, he is to be able to make up a summary, an annotation and an essay; to compose theses or a plan for his oral talk, report or discussion. At the same time, the graduate should be able to express his thoughts and ideas in written form in the proper functional style as a competent language user.

English for Science and Technology prevails in non-language higher educational establishments and university departments. That’s why a cognitive function of teaching a foreign language predominates in teaching writing in these establishments. This means that habits and skills of reading specialised literature are formed and cultivated, as well as the ability of taking notes of the learned material. Here writing is also used for consolidation of knowledge and building up habits of writing.

In schools, teaching writing is carried on consecutively at all stages. At the junior stage, the main concern of teaching writing is its technical side. Much prominence is given to teaching handwriting and spelling at this stage.

At the intermediate stage, both orthography and written speech become the main concern in teaching writing. It is noteworthy that teaching both spelling and written communication is not only closely connected with the stored up language input but also is much dependent on it.

At the senior stage, written speech becomes the focus of attention in teaching writing. Nowadays, writing for communication has become not only an important additional means of self-dependent language learning for students, but also one of the four main final practical goals in school.

Thus, teaching writing per se and writing for communication is one of the main vehicles of teaching English in school. At the same time, the level of minimal communicative efficiency in writing for communication is considered the terminal behaviour in the target language for any school-leaver.