Студопедия — Free translation
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Free translation






Free translation is a paraphrase based on meaning. The emphasis is given more to overall meaning than to exact wording. It is a sense-for-sense translation. For example: It is raining cats and dogs – Идёт сильный дождь. The " freest" translation form of translation is adaptation, which is used especially in drama and poetry. The target language text is rewritten, preserving themes, characters and plot and frequently the facts of SL culture are converted into TL culture.

Individual scholars suggest more types/methods. For example P. Newmark also speaks about semantic translation and communicative translation, the former focusing on the original (translation at the author's level), and the latter on the target language (translation at the reader's level).

Semantic translation differs from ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on meaning' where appropriate so that no assonance, word play or repetition jars in the finished version.... The distinction between faithful' and semantic translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second, is more flexible and admits the creative exceptions to 100% fidelity... (Newmark 1988, 46)

Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Newmark 1988, 47)

 

Suggestions for further reading

Malmkjaer 2005, Munday 2005 (2001), Newmark 1998 (1988)

 

1.4 Translation and interpreting

As we have seen, the term translation refers to: translation as a product, as a process or in general as including both written and oral forms of translation - translating and interpreting.

More frequently translation/translating and interpreting are usually considered as two different language-related skills - interpreting is sometimes considered as a " parallel field": interpreting studies. (See Munday 2005). While translating is a written activity, interpreting is an oral activity (a form of translation). It is an oral realization of the content of the source language in the target language. Interpreting is a complex activity, i.e. at the beginning it is the reception of some oral information from the source language and at the end is an oral transference of this received information. It consists of several partial activities (listening, decoding, keeping information, re-coding and speaking). All these activities function at the same or almost at the same time and each of them has a tendency to interfere. The ability to interpret is to find a fluent transition between them, and thus to reduce their mutual interference.

In addition to perfect knowledge of both languages and knowledge in the subject matter (needed also in written activities), extra linguistic factors and individual skills and habits play an important role, such as: time limit (constraints/shortage of time, the interpreter is being pressed for time), interference (retroactive interference and interference caused by outer or physiological influence), reorientation (switch from one language to another). To overcome these problems one needs decisiveness (fast thinking and fast reaction), anticipation, short- term memory of the interpreter (ability to remember things you have just heard), linguistic preparedness (" prefabrication", premeditation), ability of condensation (lexical, syntactical " short cuts"), note-taking skills, etc.

In general there are two principal modes/types of interpreting, namely consecutive and simultaneous interpreting.

Consecutive interpreting

It is an oral realization of the content of the source language in the TL after a whole or a part (passage) of the text (speech) is spoken. As an active aid the interpreter may make notes (or take notes in shorthand). Consecutive interpreting may have some modifications, namely: interpreting with or without taking notes, intermittent (with pauses at regular intervals) or continuous, " reporting", and tourist guide's interpreting.

Simultaneous interpreting

It is a special type of oral translation in which information is decoded synchronically (interpreted at the same time) during the speech. The interpreter listens in one language and speaks in another language without interruption. Because of pressure of time and the direct contact of the interpreter, both with a speaker and a listener, he/she must think and react quickly. This activity needs decisiveness, fast thinking and immediate reaction.

Some modifications are possible, such as interpreting in booths (booth simultaneous reproduction).

In practice some other modes/types or modifications of the above are used, for example whispering, relay, pivot, sight translation, etc.

Suggestions for further reading

Keniž 1999, Makarová 2004, Nová ková 1993, Popovič et al„ 1983

2 Equivalence

One of the central problems of translation is equivalence. Equivalence may be understood as the relation between a source text and a target text expressed by language means. In this connection Nida (1964) speaks about four basic requirements of translation: making sense; conveying the spirit and manner of the original; having a natural and easy form of expression; producing a similar response. Similarly, scholars including Duff (1990) speak about the following principles determining translation: meaning, form, register, style and clarity, and idiom.

As stated before, the task of a translator is the reproduction of a text in another language in such a way as to preserve its character and influence (effect) on the reader, and thus to find an appropriate equivalent. In older approaches there was no difference between formal correspondence (identity) and the equivalent (i.e. the equivalent was equal to formal correspondence). In these views attention is paid only to language. However, translation equivalent is not necessarily formally correspondent with the original means.

The aim of translation is not to reproduce language means but to convey the information, which they express. The aim is to reproduce a message (function of information) and not its constituent elements. The criterion is the identity of the message/information. The equivalence is functional and it features at all the language levels. In different languages we can use different categories or different means to express particular information. Examples: Пётр болен. Peter je chorý. (Peter is ill). Peter je chorý? Пётр болен? (Is Peter ill?). In this case the difference can be seen in written form in Ukrainian and Slovak expressed by a question mark ("? "), or in oral speech by intonation. In English it is primarily expressed by word order. In this case the intonation in Ukrainian and Slovak and the word order in English have the similar function.

Since language is also a social and cultural phenomenon, the equivalent is determined not only through language, but also culturally and socially (cultural context; it can be seen especially in literary texts). The choice of equivalent should fulfil intralinguistic criteria (grammatical, semantic, lexical and stylistic criteria) and extra linguistic criteria (e.g. situation, subject field, place, receiver/reader, sender/author, and " implications" etc.). This is because any equivalent contains for example a grammatical/syntactic component (relationship with other words), a semantic component (relationship between words and extra linguistic reality) and a pragmatic component (relationship: words - extra linguistic reality - user), etc. " All words are more or less context-bound" (Newmark 1998, 192). The criteria vary in different types of texts.

In general, the aim is to identify the units of translation. In different types of text or at various stages of the translation process, different units of translation as equivalents can be used, e.g.: a phoneme, a word, a collocation, a sentence, a paragraph, or a text. Thus, in some texts we work with individual words as the basic units (e.g. in technical texts, where the emphasis is on terms, concepts/notions). If we want to interpret the meaning of the text, we need to understand how the individual words, phrases and grammatical structures, etc., influence the overall meaning of the text. In other texts (e.g. in literary texts), higher units (or the whole text) should be taken into consideration. The crucial issue is to decide when the unit of translation is for example a word and when a larger unit. On the whole, although the translator operates with individual lexical items, grammatical structures, etc., the ultimate aim is to achieve the equivalence at text level - the text as a whole is " at the beginning and at the end of the process." (Vilikovský 1984; compare also Popovič et al 1983, Newmark 1998, Baker 2003).

Depending on the approach, individual scholars use various categorizations of equivalents in their analysis although sometimes, the difference is only in the use of different terminology. Nida (1964) speaks about formal and dynamic equivalence; Popovič et al (1983) about linguistic, paradigmatic, stylistic (functional) and textual (syntagmatic) equivalents. Other scholars speak about: denotative equivalence (or referential equivalence; extra-linguistic content of a text, things in the real world), connotative equivalence (stylistic equivalence), text- normative equivalence (related to text-types, same or similar context), pragmatic equivalence (communicative equivalence oriented towards the reader, effect on the reader) and formal (expressive) equivalence (related to the form and aesthetics, individual stylistic features) (compare Roller, in Munday 2001); or cultural, functional and descriptive equivalents (see Newmark 1998). Some scholars distinguish between lexical equivalence, grammatical equivalence and pragmatic equivalence (Knittlová 2000); others go into more detail, e.g. equivalence at word level, equivalence above word level, grammatical equivalence, textual equivalence and pragmatic equivalence (Baker 2003).

In conclusion, translation equivalent may be characterized as the means of one language which is the bearer of the same information in another language, i.e. the means or a set of means which reproduce in the TL the information of the SL as a whole, without any significant change. The equivalent is influenced by a variety of linguistic and cultural factors and is always relative, i.e. the equivalent depends on the possibilities of the target language to fulfil the functions of the original text, author's aims and intention, and translator's competence to cope with the original. Equivalents may be of different types.

 

Suggestions for further reading

Baker 2003 (1992), Catford 1967, Gromová 1998, Knittlová 2000, Malmkjaer 2005, Munday 2005 (2001), Newmark 1998, Popovič et al. 1983

 

 

2.1 Lexical equivalence

The vocabulary of two languages is not the same. Differences may occur in the form, content and usage of individual words and expressions. Looking at equivalence from the purely lexical point of view, we can distinguish between full/complete (absolute) equivalence, partial equivalence, and non-equivalence. (See also D. Knittlová 2000, M. Baker 2003)

Complete equivalence could be found among words of the core (basic word stock) vocabulary with unambiguous denotative meaning, naming the identical or almost identical extra linguistic reality, such as: nose – нос, nos, son – сын, syn, river – река, rieka; dance – танец, танцевать, tancovat'; white –белый, biely; sixth sense – шестое чувство, siesty zmysel, black sheep – паршивая овца, č ierna ovca, etc. The number of these words/expressions is not very high.

Partial equivalence includes some differences/similarities in form, meaning (denotation, connotation) and pragmatics.

Formal differences may be seen for example when a certain meaning is expressed in one language by a single word and in the other by a multi-word unit and vice versa (позавчера, predvč erom - the day before yesterday; утро, rá no - morning, утром, утром, rá no (predpoludnim) - in the morning; honeymoon – медовый месяц, medovй tý ž dne). From the semantic point of view there could be differences in the denotative (or referential) meaning (differences based on specialization, generalization, contiguity): student – студент, студентка, š tudent, studentka, and connotative meaning (stylistic and emotional/expressive differences), duck – утка, утятина, kač ka, kač ica. Frequently these differences are combined.

Non-equivalence (no direct lexical correspondence) occurs at word level, above word level (collocations, idioms and fixed expressions); or at text level.

In the next paragraphs we will deal with problems of equivalency at word level and above word level, coming from Baker's views (2003). (See also Ch. 6)

Equivalents at word level

Difficulties with (direct) equivalence (or " non-equivalence") at word level may be caused by culture specific concepts in the text: brunch, sophomore, coroner, solicitor, barrister, lady, yard, The Speaker, WASP; different lexical structure of words (different lexical forms): tonight (сегодня вечером, сегодня ночью и т.д., dnes več er), стареть, становиться старше, stá rnut'(grow older), fortnight, honeymoon; позавчера, predvč erom, послезавтра, pozajtra; different semantic structure (minister, idiom, garage, social)'(см.словарные статьи, ЛСВ), different collocative (contextual) meaning: cut (grass, or hair); tall boy (but high mountain).; absence of a superordinate (in-laws; bratranec) or a specific term (hyponym) (cousin M, F: my cousin is ill); differences in the frequency and purpose of using specific forms (elder brother - older brother but older than me); presence/use of loanwords (chapatti, chef, chauffeur); differences in expressive meaning (words with a certain connotation) (duck, yellow), existence of a similar counterpart in the TL with a different content (dome – дом, dуm), etc.

To solve the above mentioned problems is in some cases relatively simple while in other cases it is more complicated and translators are recommended to translate, for example by:

- a more general word (superordinate) (in-laws – приобретённая родня, pribuzni; solicitor, barrister - advoká t)

- a more neutral/less expressive word (demos - 1) простой народ, массы, население Syn: populace, people 1., common people, mass 2) демос, народ в Древней Греции (основная полноправная часть населения, противопоставленная аристократии) 3) = deme округ (община, коммуна в древней Аттике); округ, департамент (административно-территориальная единица в современной Греции) demonš trá cie, Nam - Vietnam);

- cultural substitution (inch – сантиметр, centimeter, mile – километр, kilometer, yard – метр, meter...);

- a loanword or a loanword with explanation (barbecue, to lob -= lob along идти или бежать тяжело, неуклюже The wounded horse lobbed along, trying to reach the farm where it knew it could get help. — Раненая лошадь, прихрамывая, пыталась добраться до фермы, где, она знала, ей помогут., lobovat);

- paraphrase and explicitation/addition (predvč erom - the day before yesterday; turnpike -1) дорожное ограждение с шипами (для защиты от нападения всадников) 2) застава, шлагбаум 3) = turnpike road а) главная магистраль б) платная автодорога 4) винтовая лестница); a week in Aruba - tý ž deт na ostrove Aruba;

- transliteration when applying TL norms (Beijing – Пекин, Peking, jazz – джаз, dž ez, sheriff – шериф, š erif, beefsteak – бифштекс, biftek);

- the footnote or a glossary at the end of the book.

 

Equivalents above word level

Difficulties above word level (collocations, idioms and fixed expressions in the ST, with no direct correspondence) may also be caused by: culture-specific collocations (dobru chut! Red riding hood, Pennsylvania Turnpike, Boxing Day); absence of the idiomatic equivalent in the target language (have green fingers); existence of a similar counterpart in the target language with a different or partially different content and/or context (high school – средняя школа, vysoká š kola; dirt road – немощёная, грунтовая дорога, š pinavá cesta; lead sb by the nose - vodit' niekoho za nos; small fish - malá ryba); difference between the convention, context, form and frequency of use (department store – универмаг, obchodný dom; last/final straw - posledná kvapka; don't look a gift-horse in the mouth - darovanйmu koтovi nepozeraj na zuby; starý ako Matuzalem - as old as Methuselah; hot and cold water - teplá a studená voda; foot soldier –пехотинец, рядовой сотрудник, peš iak); differences in connotation, etc.

To cope with such problems, translators are recommended to:

- Use an expression/idiom of similar meaning, imagery and lexical structure; as pretty as a picture – красивая, как картина; have the green light – получить разрешение на путь или движение далее, «зелёную улицу».

- Use an idiom of similar meaning even of different or partially different lexical/ grammatical structure and imagery; kick the bucket – откинуть копыта, otrč iќ kopytá; once in a blue moon –раз в год по обещанию, в кои-то веки, raz za uhorský rok; have a sweet tooth – иметь пристрастие к чему-л.;

- Paraphrase the original idiom: have green fingersиметь талант в садоводчестве;

- Reword, reorder the lexical items: pedestrian crossing – пешеходный переход, prechod pre chodcov, secretary general – генеральный секретарь, generá lny tajomnik

- Translate by paraphrase, explicitation or addition: bamboo curtain - " бамбуковый занавес" (самоизоляция КНР от внешнего мира); or give literal translation in inverted commas in the TL text and either paraphrase or translate literally in a footnote " bamboo curtain - " bambusová opona";

- Translate by omission: " He wrote to tell me, that...- " Написал мне, что..." " He was shot dead outside the house – застрелен перед домом.

 

Suggestions for further reading

Baker 2003 (1982), Knittlová 2000, Kolá r 2006, Kvetko 2005, Kvetko 2006








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