Non-literary textsSpecial language types
Technical / scientific texts The word " technical" is characterized in Encarta Webster's Dictionary of the English Language (2004) as (1) relating to or specializing in industrial techniques or subjects or applied science (2) relating to the operation of a machine, system, or technique (3) belonging to or involving a specialized subject, field, or profession. Technical/scientific text is based on notions/concepts and special terminology. The main problem is terminology (esp. absence of some terms, neologisms, or the terms which are not yet fixed in the TL), which may not necessarily correspond in the two languages (for example compare the English term idiom and Slovak idiуm, frazйma). Scientific thinking needs exactness; it works with unambiguous notions and terms, which form 5 - 10% of the text. Formal vocabulary, abstractions and stereotyped structures, passive forms, tables, charts and diagrams are frequently used in the text and the stylistic level is more or less obligatory/given. The opposition of form and content is solved in favour of content. It means that from the semantic point of view, denotation is in the foreground and connotation is in the background (words are used in their direct meanings; no allusions are used, etc). It means that exactness and terminology are the main problems also in translation. The texts are varied in topic and it may often be that they are badly written. Newmark (1998) distinguishes academic, professional and popular levels. Some of these texts (esp. the humanities texts) may sometimes resemble journalistic style/texts or a style of literary texts. Institutional texts Institutional texts include the areas of law, government, politics, diplomacy, commerce, finance, etc. (i.e. translation of legal documents, business documents, diplomatic documents, military documents, etc.). Among the specifics of legal (and commercial) texts can be mentioned the fact that they are based on exact definitions, specialized terms, abbreviations, abstract words and frequently on archaisms. Convention, formality, impersonal style, long sentences and passive forms are typical for these texts. Administrative texts also have some general features of the legal style.
4.2 General information texts General information texts include journalistic texts (editorials, reports, features...) and advertisements. They are used in mass media and usually have an informative, expressive and appellative/vocative function (especially in advertisements). A distinction is made between news (objective information) and views (subjective presentation of information). These texts share a number of common features with both administrative style (text) and literary style (text) (context of situation, evaluative adjectives, metaphors, neologisms, euphemisms, puns, etc.). The facts (represented by " economical" style) are fused/mixed with creative elements (" elegant" style). " The style of articles for periodicals should be " readable", while politically sensitive speeches require a very close translation, to avoid being misinterpreted". (Munday 2005, 31). From the translation point of view, among the specialities and problems occurring in journalistic texts can be mentioned: headlines of individual articles, irregular grammar, the use of shorter words, culture specific notions, puns, allusions and connotations of individual words and expressions. Problems may also be encountered in the translation of neologisms and abbreviations. Almost the same can be said about advertisements. In the translation of advertisements the emphasis is on the appellative/vocative function (appealing, persuasive elements). It is important to adopt the text to fit the culture of the target language, so that the text (message) successfully persuades the reader in the TL. In principle, non-literary and literary translations differ in their intention. If we simplify the problem, literary texts belong to the world of imagination and mind (they are more about people), while non-literary texts are closer to the world of reality, facts and events (they are about things). Literary translation is considered an art, and non-literary translation is closer to science. Somewhere between literary texts and non-literary texts are general information texts (journalistic texts and advertisements). The difference between the languages of individual types can be relatively easily felt, but are more difficult to define. In non-literary (technical) texts the most important (frequently the only) function is the informative function (based on notions) while in literary texts the dominant function is the aesthetic function, though we find other functions there as well.
Suggestions for further reading Gromová 2003, Gromová - Hrdlič ka (ed.) 2003, Knittlová 2001, Mistrнk 1988, Miš š нková 2006, Munday 2005, Newmark 1998, Popovič et al., 1983
As we have said before translation is an act of communication. If we simplify the whole process of literary translation, it can be illustrated as follows: literary literary context 1 context 2 author text 1 translator (receiver 1) text 2 reader (receiver 2) social social reality 1 reality 2 (See Popovič et al. 1983 / Vilikovský 1984) The author of the original text writes in a certain literary context and socio-political reality and aims to evoke this among his/her readers, who have the same mental and spiritual culture, tradition and influence. The reader of the original faces the effect of the text based on the direct/immediate reality - it is his/her native language and reality. The translator, as Vilikovský (1984) says, plays a double role: in relation to the original he/she is a reader (a receiver), in relation to the reader he/she is the creator (author) of a new text. However, his/her role as the reader is different from the position of the ordinary reader. The translator's perception is more intellectual than that of ordinary reader. He/she may be compared to a literary critic in as much as he has to analyze and evaluate the text. His/her reception is in a foreign language and so language training is required. In addition to language training he/she also needs a certain talent/gift to appreciate ideas and aesthetic values. The translator must acquire language competence as well as cultural knowledge of the SL and TL. He/she uses not only dictionaries, but also other sources giving information on history, culture and literature, etc. The translator's primary object is the reflection of the reality in the author's text (unlike the author, whose object is this reality itself). The translator addresses his/her text to the reader of a different culture and tradition, i.e. the new text is received in a different social reality and is read in a different literary context. It is influenced also by older translations or other foreign translations (e.g. Czech, German, Hungarian), as well as by the prevailing attitudes to the author. The translator faces in his/her work not only the foreign text but also (foreign) cultural and literary facts and values. The conflict is in the fact that current views of the reality may be different from those in the original text. The acceptance of (certain) texts may be different in a different language community and culture. It may happen that the facts or values, which are considered as positive or exotic features in one community, are considered as irrelevant, current or negative in another community. Vilikovský (1984) gives an example from A. Bennett's novel: The Old Wives' Tale. One of them living all her life in England goes to Paris and encounters exotic things: francs, kilograms, metres, etc. But a Slovak reader is in different position - these things are relatively familiar here. Another factor influencing translation is the lapse of time (the difference in time, i.e. the time interval/gap between the original text and translation). In translation, ancient Latin or Greek epic poems, for example, are first of all understood as literary and historical documents. The sacral and solemn, mythological character of ancient drama is nowadays missing. Drama in verse had a different effect on the receiver in Shakespeare's times than today (where we prefer prose). A similar situation arises with the acceptance of Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver's Travels, etc., by present-day readers. The reader makes a distinction between the original literature and the translated literature and realizes new and exotic elements. In many cases, however, the translated text becomes even part and parcel of the received culture, as seen in the translation of the Bible (Constantine and Methodius for Slavic languages, Authorized Version of the Bible in England, Luther's translation for Germans). (Vilikovský 1984). In addition, in Slovak, there are problems with the absence of the older form of standard/literary Slovak. The translator may have problems with creating (forming) the older forms of standard Slovak and thus a certain re-evaluation of the text is necessary. Certain minor problems may be with actual (referential) errors in the original text, e.g.: Shakespeare speaks about Bohemia as a coastal country; Hemingway (Farewell to Arms) about 11 Czechoslovak soldiers and one Hungarian corporal; Poe gives the date of the newspaper 31 June, etc. (See Vilikovský 1984). Many examples could be found in Nida (1959, 1964). In conclusion, we can say that the situation with regard to the so-called functional identity of the text is relatively complicated. The new (translated) text becomes part of two literatures. By its origin, structure, and values, it is the product of a certain language community (country), culture and the period of its origin; on the other hand, the translated text, in its " new (concrete) language form" is " identified" with the translator's environment (country, culture). It is read in a different environment, and its values are received in a different context and frequently in a different time. Thus it means that if the translator concentrated only on the pure reproduction of language material, he would confront the reader with foreign/strange forms/facts and situation. That is why the translator has also to take into consideration the conditions in which the translation is received. On the whole, we can also state that the translated text will always be different from the original. The original text is definite and authoritative. The translated text functions as a variant - one of the possible realizations of the original text. A specific feature of the translation is that it must reproduce not only the pure text but also its cultural value. The translator is a " co-author" and a mediator between different views and conceptions of the world and culture.
Suggestions for further reading Gromová 2003, Gromová (ed.) 2004, Hochel 1990, Knittlová 2001, Popovič et al., 1983, Vilikovský 1984 5.1 Phases of translation The translation process is traditionally divided into two phases: reception (receptive phase) and reproduction (creative phase). However, the situation is in reality more complex. The translator begins with the reception focused on the foreign text/culture and after its critical evaluation he/she forms (creates) his/her own conception, which is the reflection not only of the received text but also his/her knowledge of his/her native TL literature, possibilities of the target language, aesthetics and other conventions. This phase pays attention both to the original and the target culture. Thus, it is more convenient to speak about three phases: 1. Comprehension of the original text and the author's intention - reception and interpretation 2. Formulating the translator's intention, choosing the approach/method - conception (formulating a conception) 3. Translation proper - reproduction of the text in the TL These three phases do not necessarily happen in isolation, but they are determined by the experience of the translator.
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