Студопедия — Causes of information overload
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Causes of information overload






The general causes of information overload include:

  • A rapidly increasing rate of new information being produced.
  • The ease of duplication and transmission of data across the Internet.
  • An increase in the available channels of incoming information (e.g. telephone, e-mail, instant messaging).
  • Large amounts of historical information to dig through.
  • Contradictions and inaccuracies in available information.
  • A low signal-to-noise ratio.
  • A lack of a method for comparing and processing different kinds of information.

E-mail remains a major source of information overload, as people struggle to keep up with the rate of incoming messages. As well as filtering out unsolicited commercial messages (spam), users also have to contend with the growing use of e-mail attachments in the form of lengthy reports, presentations and media files.

In addition to e-mail, the World Wide Web has provided access to billions of pages of information. In many offices, workers are given unrestricted access to the Web, allowing them to manage their own research. The use of search engines helps users to find information quickly. However, information published online may not always be reliable, due to the lack of authority-approval or a compulsory accuracy check before publication. This results in people having to cross-check what they read before using it for decision-making, which takes up more time.

Psychological Effects

As people are faced with growing levels of information overload, the inability to make clear and accurate decisions can increase their stress levels.

An article in the New Scientist magazine claimed that exposing individuals to an information overloaded environment resulted in lower IQ scores than exposing individuals to marijuana. The same article also notes that a night without sleep can be as debilitating as over-exposure to information.

Part of the problem of information overload can be traced to interruptions in the workplace. Interruptions include incoming e-mail messages, phone calls and instant messaging – all of which break mental focus. The person has to deal with the interruption, then redirect their attention back to the original task.

In 2005, research firm "Basex" calculated the cost of unnecessary interruptions and related recovery time at "$588 billion" per annum in the U.S. alone. That figure was updated to "$650 billion" in early 2007.

 

A theatre director or stage director is a practitioner in the theatre field who oversees and orchestrates the mounting of a theatre production (a play, an opera, a musical, etc.) by unifying various endeavours and aspects of production. The director's function is to ensure the quality and completeness of theatre production and to lead the members of the creative team into realizing their artistic vision for it. The director therefore collaborates with a team of creative individuals and other staff, coordinating research, stagecraft, costume design, props, lighting design, acting, set design and sound design for the production. If the production he or she is mounting is a new piece of writing or a (new) translation of a play, the director may also work with the playwright or translator. In contemporary theatre, the director is generally the primary visionary, making decisions on the artistic concept and interpretation of the text and its staging. Different directors occupy different places of authority and responsibility, depending on the structure and philosophy of individual theatre companies. Directors utilize a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and levels of collaboration.

The director in theatre history

In ancient Greece, the birthplace of European drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for the staging of his plays. Actors would generally be semi-professionals, and the playwright-director oversaw the mounting of plays from the writing process all the way through to their performances, often also acting in them. He would also train the chorus, sometimes compose the music and supervise every aspect of production.

In Medieval times, the complexity of religious drama, with its large scale mystery plays that often included crowd scenes, processions and eleborate effects, gave the role of director considerable importance. The director's tasks included overseeing the erecting of a stage and scenery, casting and directing the actors, and addressing the audience at the beginning of each performance and after each intermission.

From Renaissance times up until the 19th century, the role of director was often carried by the so-called actor-manager. This would usually be a senior actor in a troupe who took the responsibility for chosing the repertoire of work, staging it and managing the company. This was the case for instance with Commedia dell'Arte companies.

The modern theatre director has originated from the staging of elaborate spectacles of the Meininger Company. Constantin Stanislavski, principally an actor-manager, would set up the Moscow Art Theatre in Russia and similarly emancipate the role of the director as artistic visionary.

Well-known theatre directors

Anne Bogart (United States), Peter Brook (British, mostly working in France), Dominic Cooke (Britain), Richard Foreman (United States), Patrick Garland (Britain), Jerzy Grotowski (Poland), Vsevolod Meyerhold (Soviet Union), Jonathan Miller (Britain), Peter Sellars (United States), Lee Strasberg (Germany), Mary Zimmerman (United States).

Styles of directing

The dictator. In this style of directing, the director has a strongly assertive role and is very dominant in the process of creating a theatrical work. Rehearsals are more or less fully controlled and predictable, with the actors having little or no say.

The negotiator. 'The negotiator' is a style of direction in which the director focuses on a more improvised and mediated form of rehearsal and creation, using the ideas of the production team and actors to shape a theatrical work in quite a democratic style.

The creative artist. The director sees himself or herself as a creative artist working with the 'materials' of dramatic creativity, be they the actors, designers and production team. The "creative artist" wants input from the actors but, as artist, has final say over what is included and how ideas are incorporated.

The confrontationalist. In this style of directing, the director is in constant dialogue and debate with the cast and the production team about creative decisions and interpretations. Out of these exchanges, which can sometimes be heated or risky, comes a final contested product.

Many contemporary directors use a creative amalgam of styles, depending on the genre of the theatrical work, the nature of the project and the type of cast.

Once a show has opened (premiered before a regular audience), theatre directors are generally considered to have fulfilled their function. From that point forward the stage manager is left in charge of all essential concerns.

 

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