I. Infinitive

 

This construction differs from the discussed above in that it is introduced by the preposition with and its nominal element is hardly ever presented by a pronoun; it is more closely related to the predicate verb and is seldom set off by a comma.

 

She went on reading with her eyes fixed on the pages of the book.

It is unhealthy to sleep with the windows shut.

 

The main syntactical function of the construction is that of an adverbial modifier of manner or attendant circumstances.

An additional idea of time, reason, or condition may be prompted by the context, as in: I can’t walk with my leg broken (reason).

 

 

Verbals

The various forms that a verb can take fall into two main divisions: finite and

non-finite (verbals). The latter are the infinitive (to discuss), the gerund

(discussing), participle I (discussing), participle II (discussed).

General characteristics: a) non-finite forms possess the categories of voice,

perfect and aspect; b) non-finites are not restricted in number and person by any

grammatical subject; c) they combine the characteristics of a verb with those of

some other part of speech; d) verbals cannot form a predicate by themselves but

they can function as part of a compound verbal predicate: She suddenly began

to speak; They were caught stealing the jewellery.

All non-finites may be part of the so-called predicative constructions: I

didn’t expect you to come; He found her crying bitterly; I had the piano tuned.

I. Infinitive

The infinitive names a process in a most general way. It combines verbal

features (morphological and syntactical) with those of the noun.

Split infinitive

In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the particle to.

It is occasionally separated from the infinitive by some other words, more often

an adverb or emphatic particles: They were seen to just touch each other’s

hands.

This separation is acceptable only to give special emphasis to the verb.

Bare infinitive

The infinitive is used without to in the following cases:

 after auxiliary verbs;

 after modal verbs (except ought to, have to, be to) and modal expressions

had better, would rather, would sooner: She’d sooner die than forgive;

 after verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, watch, notice, observe,

listen to, etc.) in the construction Complex Object: I heard him arrive.

However, in passive sentences with these verbs we use a to-infinitive: He was

overheard to say that he hoped Mike would reject the offer; She was noticed

to hesitate;

 after causative verbs let, make, have (also in the construction Complex

Object): The boss is not going to let me stay; They made me reduce my

expenditures (But! - He was made to rewrite his introduction letter);

 after the verb to know in the meaning “to experience, to observe” (usually

used in the perfect form): Have you ever known him tell a lie?;

 after phrases with but (cannot but, do anything but, do nothing but,

couldn’t but): He cannot but accept it;5

 in “why-not” sentences: Why not let me help you?;

 if two infinitives are joined by ‘and’ or ‘or’, the to of the second infinitive

can be omitted: I want to call Mr Smith and fax or send him a message.

Remember fairly idiomatic phrases: hear tell, make believe, and let (it) slip:

I never heard tell of it! (= was never told/ had no idea); He made believe that

he had settled everything himself (= pretended); She let (it) slip that she's

getting married (= said it unintentionally).

Notice also the phrases make do and let go: Mary borrowed my trendy

summer dress, so I had to make do with the old one (it wasn't the one I

wanted); Let go of my hand! (relax grip on).

To-infinitive

Remember the verbs after which the to-infinitive is used:

 (can/can’t) afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, claim, consent,

decide, decline, demand, expect, fail, hesitate, hope, hurry, learn, manage,

offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, tend, threaten, volunteer,

want, wish, etc.: He threatened to dismiss the strike leader; The shop refused

to accept the customer’s credit card;

 would like, would love, would prefer (to express specific

preference): I’d love to live in a more spacious apartment.

Some verbs may be followed either by a to-infinitive or an object + toinfinitive: I prefer to cook/ I prefer you to cook (= you do the cooking).

Other verbs like this include can bear (in negative sentences and in

questions), need, hate, help, like, love, want, wish.

Notice that after help we can use either a to-infinitive or bare infinitive: He

helped me (to) net a handsome profit.

 The to-infinitive is also used after certain nouns: What a surprise to see

him there! It’s a great chance to talk to him; after too/enough constructions: I

was foolish enough to believe her; with ‘it + be + adjective + of’: It was nice of

Joe to congratulate us on our anniversary (see Syntactic functions).

Repetition of the particle to

For the sake of emphasis or contrast the particle to may be repeated before each

of the infinitives: It’s such a delight, you know, to go into the field and to pick

up a sweet spring flower!

The particle to is sometimes used without any infinitive if the latter is clearly

understood from the previous context: You can stay if you want to! It is

common after the verbs to want, wish, mean, try, allow, be going, ought, have

(as a modal verb), should (would) like.

The grammatical categories of the infinitive

Perfect Aspect Active voice Passive voice

Non-perfect Common

Continuous

to discuss

to be discussing

to be discussed

_____

Perfect Common

Continuous

to have discussed

to have been

discussing

to have been discussed

_____

1. Revise the grammatical meanings of ‘perfect’, ‘aspect’ and ‘voice’

categories. What does the perfect infinitive used after the verbs expressing

hope, expectation, intention (in the past tense forms) indicate?

Retroactive infinitive. The active form of the infinitive may have a passive

meaning: There was only one problem to solve. It can be replaced by the

corresponding passive form: He is to forgive → He is to be forgiven; She’s not

to blame → She’s not to be blamed. The active infinitive thus used is called

retroactive.

NB!

Active pattern:

Verb + object + to infinitive

passive

Mr Price taught Peter to sing. Peter was taught to sing (by Mr Price).9

Other verbs in this pattern include advise, allow, ask, believe, consider,

expect, feel, instruct, mean, order, report, require, tell, understand. In some

contexts it is possible to make both verbs passive: Changes to the taxation

system are expected to be proposed; She was required to be interviewed. Some

verbs followed by an object + to-infinitive in the active have no passive forms:

Susan liked Tom to be there (but not *Tom was liked to be there). Other verbs

like this include (can’t) bear, hate, love, need, prefer, want, wish.

NB!

Active pattern:

Verb + to infinitive + object

passive

His colleagues started to respect Tim. Tim started to be respected (by his colleagues).

Other verbs in this pattern include: 1) appear, begin, come, continue,

seem, tend; 2) agree, aim, attempt, hope, refuse, struggle, try. The verbs in the

first group (and start) have corresponding meanings in active and passive

sentences, but the verbs in the second group do not. Compare: People came

to recognize her as the leading violinist of her generation (active). It

corresponds to She came to be recognized as the leading violinist of her

generation (passive); but (see verbs from Group 2): The team captain hoped to

select Kevin (active) does not correspond to Kevin hoped to be selected by the

team captain (passive).

Syntactic functions of the infinitive

 the infinitive as subject:

To succeed in this job requires more time and energy than I actually

have; It’s hard to take a decision;

 the infinitive as part of the predicate:12

1. as predicative in compound nominal predicates:

Our aim is to master English; Your duty will be to fetch the kids from school,

to feed them, to help them do their homework.

Abstract nouns that can function as the subject of a compound nominal

predicate with an infinitive-predicative:

advice

aim

ambition

attempt

business

desire

difficulty

duty

experience

habit

hope

idea

instruction

intention

job

method

need

object

plan

principle

purpose

reason

task

thing

wish, etc.

The function of the subject may be also performed by the pronoun all or

the substantivized superlatives the most and the least with an attributive clause

attached to them: All she wanted was not to be punished; The least he can do is

to sort out these papers;

2. the infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate:

She ought to have warned me; You had better stop fighting (as part of a

compound verbal modal predicate);

They continued to talk shop; He began to think we had forgotten about

him (as part of a compound verbal phasal predicate);

3. as simple nominal predicate:

Me – to accept your proposal! Why not leave her alone?

 the infinitive as object:

The assistant managed to sort out the problem; I hesitate to say this (after the

verbs which take only one object); All parents should encourage their

offsprings to study hard at school (after the verbs which take two objects – the

st is a noun or a pronoun and the second an infinitive). The infinitive may

function as object after certain adjectives (adjectivized participles) which can be

divided into two groups:

Group 1 Group 2

determined, difficult, eager, easy, free, inclined,

interested, keen, powerless, prepared, ready,

reluctant, slow, worthy, etc.

annoyed, astonished, frightened, glad, grateful,

happy, pleased, proud, scared, sorry, surprised,

thankful, etc.

The infinitive denotes actions simultaneous with

or posterior to the states expressed by the

predicate, and cannot therefore be used in

perfect forms: She’s inclined to turn down the

offer.

The infinitive denotes an action slightly

preceding the state expressed by the predicate,

and can have both non-perfect and perfect

forms: He is proud to have achieved the highest

results.

Remember some rather common phrases used with the infinitive-object:

can afford, can’t bear, make sure, make up one’s mind, take care, take the

trouble.

NB: the infinitive as object after the introductory it: verb + it + adj/ noun +

to-infinitive

1. find it difficult/ hard/ interesting/ pointless/ etc. to do smth

think it impolite/ foolish/ one’s duty/ etc. to do smth13

consider it reasonable/ tactless/ an honour/ etc. to do smth

I find (that) it (is) impolite to interrupt people. → I find it impolite to

interrupt people.

He thought (that) it (was) his duty to help her. → He thought it his duty to

help her.

B. make it a point / a rule to do smth

make it painful/ difficult/ necessary (for smb) to do smth

He makes it an invariable rule not to give anything to beggars.

My mother’s illness made it impossible for her to walk.

 the infinitive as attribute:

It’s not a thing to trifle with (mind that an attributive infinitive often retains the

preposition); The amount to be paid includes the cost of packing; He was

always the first to offer help.

 the infinitive as adverbial modifier of several types:

In order to get a pay rise she began to work overtime (of purpose); He turned

up at the party to hear that his girl had already left (of subsequent events: = He

turned up and heard...; the infinitive denotes an action that follows the one

expressed by the predicate and is used in the non-perfect non-continuous

forms); Paul was too exhausted to get down to his work (= He was so

exhausted that he couldn’t get down to his work); He’s tall enough to reach it; I

am not such a fool as to withdraw this offer (of consequence); She was driven

away, never to revisit this place again (of attendant circumstances: the

infinitive is used in the non-perfect, common aspect, active form and denotes

other actions that take place at the same time as the action of the predicate); She

moved her hand as if to stop him (of comparison or manner; it is introduced by

than, as if, as though); I’ll thank you to keep it secret (of condition: =I’ll thank

you if you keep…; What can I do but tender my resignation? (of exception; it is

introduced by the prepositions but and except); My great-grandmother lived to

be ninety-nine (of time); They are so careless not to check everything before

they leave! (of cause or motivation: the action denoted by the infinitive serves

as a cause or a motivation on which the characterization of people’s behavior,

intellectual qualities, etc. is based).

Infinitive phrases

1. Infinitive may form part of a conjunctive infinitive phrase which is used

in different functions in a sentence:

What to do was beyond him (subject); He completely forgot how to handle a

loom (object); His difficulty was how to break the silence (predicative); He

knew no one with whom to start a new business (attribute).

NB! After what, which, whose, how many and how much we can use a

noun: Sarah and Mark were discussing what colour to paint the walls; We

wondered whose story to believe – both drivers said it wasn’t their fault.14

We can use whether but not if: We’ll have to decide whether to go ahead

with the project (or not). NOT We’ll have to decide if to go ahead.

Before the question word we can also use the adjectives clear, obvious and

sure and the expressions have an idea and make up your mind: I wasn’t sure who

to ask for help. A preposition (e.g. of) can come before the question word: I

have a good idea (of) how to get the treasure; There’s the question of who to

invite to the function.

2. Infinitives also occur in so-called parenthetical phrases: To tell the truth,

we’re going to conceal our policies and objectives.

to cut/make a long story short to say the least of it

to tell the truth to begin with

to say nothing of to sum up

not to mention to crown it all

to put it mildly to be more precise

to be quite frank strange to say

to make matters worse needless to say

Remember some common phrases with the infinitive: leaves much to be desired,

hard to please, pleasant to look at, difficult to deal with.

Infinitive constructions

For-to-infinitive construction

The preposition for may introduce the construction in which a noun (in the

common case) or a pronoun (in the objective case) has an infinitive attached to

it: The best thing will be for me to close up shop; This article is easy enough for

you to translate (mind that the following sentence is wrong: *This article is

easy enough for you to translate it).

The construction is used when the doer of the action (or the bearer of the

state), expressed by the infinitive, is different from that of the predicate.

Compare: I have closed the window not to catch cold. – I have closed the

window for you not to catch cold.

In the sentence the for-to-infinitive construction performs the functions of

subject, predicative, object, attribute, adverbial modifier of purpose and

consequence and is generally rendered in Russian by a subordinate clause.

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction (Complex Object)

This construction, in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun (in

the common case) or a pronoun (in the objective case), forms a complex object

of some verbs. It is used in the following cases:

 after verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, watch, observe, notice

and some others) and the verb listen (to). The infinitive is used in the nonperfect common aspect active voice form without particle to:

They felt the boat shudder; I noticed him throw something into the wastebasket.

NB: the verbs to see, to notice in the meaning “to realize” and to hear in the

meaning “to learn = to know” cannot be followed by this construction, only

subordinate object clause is possible in this case:18

Compare: I heard him come downstairs – I hear (= know) you have dropped

the idea of changing the place of residence;

NB: after the verbs to see, to notice instead of the complex object with the

infinitive to be we use a subordinate clause:

The inspector noticed that the parcel was torn;

 after verbs of mental perception (know, think, suppose, believe,

consider, expect, understand and some others). The infinitive is always used

with the particle to:

I believed her to be examining a patient in the next room; I consider Jane (to

be) an expert with her needle; We expect the contract to be abrogated

tomorrow;

 after verbs of emotion, wish and intention (like, love, hate, dislike, can’t

bear, want, wish, desire, intend, mean, would like, would love). After these verbs

non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive with the particle to are used:

The strikers wanted the head to satisfy their demands within a week; She hated

her son to be separated from her;

 after verbs of command, request, permission (have, make, let, get,

order, ask, command, cause, induce, allow, suffer (неохотно разрешить,

позволить скрепя сердце) and some others, of which the first three take a bare

infinitive):

I cannot allow this matter to go any further; He asked for the file to be copied; I

won’t have you speak like that!; I got the assistant to type all my papers.

The subjective-(or nominative)-with-the-infinitive construction (Complex

Subject)

The subject of a sentence is sometimes expressed by a noun or a pronoun and

an infinitive which follows the predicate. Although these two parts do not stand

together they are closely connected and form one syntactic unit – a complex

subject: The crew is reported to have landed safely.

Remember three common patterns with this construction:

 Pattern A

noun/pronoun passive verb (predicate) to-infinitive

The verbs used in this pattern as predicate are verbs of sense perception (hear,

see), verbs of saying and reporting and verbs of mental perception (say, report,

announce, declare, state, rumour, acknowledge, allege, expect, know, suppose,

think, understand, believe, consider):

She was seen to slap his face; The criminals are said to be hiding in the woods;

The actress is rumoured to have been poisoned (Поговаривают, что актрису

отравили).

 Pattern B

noun/pronoun active verb (predicate) to-infinitive19

The verbs used in this pattern are: seem/ appear; happen/ chance (случайно

оказываться; случилось так, что …); turn out/ prove (after these two verbs

the infinitive is mostly nominal, i.e. presented by to be + noun/ adjective):

They seem to have withdrawn their claim; I happened to see Jack on my way to

work.

 Pattern C

noun/pronoun link verb + certain/ sure/

likely/ unlikely

to-infinitive

Use this pattern to express your attitude towards the future or to talk about past

possibility:

The resignation of the managing director is certain to arouse new fears about

the future of the company; She’s likely to have had some sort of cosmetic

surgery. She looks much younger; Clare is unlikely to take a hasty decision.

NB: She seems to know this rider. They are likely to succeed.

(seem = give the idea or effect of (likely = probable, expected)

being) Кажется, у них всё получится.

Кажется, она знает этого наездника.

It’s possible to use there with appear and seem followed by to be or to have been:

There appears/ seems to have been a default on payment.

In order to make a negation you can use any of the structures below (the first

one is more common in informal English):

These manufacturers don’t seem to know any eye-deceiving tricks.

These manufacturers seem not to know any eye-deceiving tricks.

Absolute Infinitive Construction

It consists of a noun in the common case and an infinitive and is generally used

in juridical texts and business documents:

The buyers ordered 90 cases of vegetable oil, delivery to be made in May (…

причём поставка должна была быть осуществлена в мае).