Compensatory Strategies

Another common set of communication devices involves compensation for missing knowledge. We will elaborate here on just three of the eleven strategy types in Illustration - 2.4

Typical of rock-bottom beginning-level learners, for example, is the memorization of certain stock phrases or sentences without internalized knowledge of their components. These memorized chunks of language, known as prefabricated patterns,are often found in pocket bilingual phrase books, which list hundreds of sentences for various occasions: "How much does this cost?""Where is the toilet?" "I don't speak English." "I don't understand you." Such phrases are memorized by rote to fit their appropriate context. Prefabricated patterns are sometimes the source of some merriment.

Code-switching is the use of a first or third language within a stream of speech in the second language. Often code-switching subconsciously occurs between two advanced learners with a common first language, but in such a case, usually not as a compensatory strategy. Learners in the early stages of acquisition, however, might code-switch—use their native lan­guage to fill in missing knowledge—whether the hearer knows that native language or not. Sometimes the learner slips in just a word or two, in the hope that the hearer will get the gist of what is being communicated. It is surprising that context of communication coupled with some of the universals of nonverbal expression sometimes enables learners to communi­cate an idea in their own language to someone unfamiliar with that language. Such marvels of communication are a tribute to the universality of human experience and a balm for those who feel the utter despair of attempting to communicate in a foreign tongue.

Yet another common compensatory strategy is a direct appeal for help. Learners may, if stuck for a particular word or phrase, directly ask a native speaker or the teacher for the form ("How do you say___?"). Or they might venture a possible guess and then ask for verification from the native speaker of the correctness of the attempt. Also within this category are those instances where the learner might appeal to a bilingual dictionary for help. The latter case can also produce some rather amusing situations. Once a student of English as a second language, when asked to introduce himself to the class and the teacher, said, "Allow me to introduce myself and tell you some of the..." At this point he quickly got out his pocket dic­tionary and, finding the word he wanted, continued, "some of the head­lights of my past."

The list of potentially useful communication strategies is not limited to the thirteen listed in Illustration - 6. Cohen and Aphek (1981) found that suc­cessful learners in their study made use of word association and generating their own rules. Chesterfield and Chesterfield (1985) reported instances of self talk as learners practiced their second language. Rost and Ross (1991) discovered that learners benefited from asking for repetition and seeking various forms of clarification. Huang and Van Naerssen (1987) attributed the oral production success of Chinese learners of English to functional practice (using language for communication) and, even more interesting, to reading practice. And the research continues.