Degrees of comparison of adjectives

The only change that can be undergone by English adjectives is the change according to comparison degrees. Therefore the category of comparison – is now the only grammatical category which is common for English and Ukrainian adjectives.

The category of the degrees of comparison of adjectives is the system of opposemes (like long-longer-longest, довгий-довший-найдовший) showing quantitative distinctions of qualities. More exactly, it shows whether the adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely or relatively as a higher or the highest amount of the property in comparison with that of some (or all) other substances. Accordingly we speak in both languages of the “ positive” (long, good, beautiful, довгий, хороший, красивий), “comparative” (longer, better, more beautiful, довший, кращий, красивіший/більш красивий) and “ superlative” (longest, best, most beautiful, найдов­ший, найкращий, найкрасивіший/найбільш красивий) degrees.

Nevertheless, there are certain peculiarities in both languages concerning the means of the degree of comparison expression, namely the peculiarities of the manifestation of opposition underlying this category.

Thus, as far as English adjectives are concerned their positive degree is not marked. We may speak of a zero morpheme in this case. The “comparative” and the “superlative” degrees are built up either synthetically (by affixation or suppletivity) or analytically, which mainly depends on the phonetic structure of the stem, not on its meaning. If the stem is monosyllabic, or disyllabic with a stress on the second syllable or ending in -er, -y, -le, -ow, the comparative and the superlative degrees are usually built up synthetically by adding the suffixes -er and -est respectively, e.g.: bright-brighter-brightest.

In all other cases the comparative and superlative degrees are formed analytically with the help of the word-morphemes more and most, e.g.: cheerful – more cheerful – most cheerful.

Suppletive opposemes are few in number but of very frequent occurrence, e.g.: good – better – best, bad – worse – worst.

The quantitative pronominal adjectives (or adjective pronouns) many, much and little form opposites of comparison in a similar way: many/much – more, most, little – less – least.

Some scholars (V. Zhigadlo, I. Ivanova, L. Iofic) treat more beautiful and (the) most beautiful not as analytical forms, but as free syntactical combinations of adverbs and adjectives. One of their arguments is that less and least form combinations with adjectives similar to those with more and most, e.g. more beautiful – less beautiful, the most beautiful – the least beautiful. The mentioned similarity is however superficial [24; 75–77].

A.I. Smirnitsky, following O. Jespersen, thinks that there is good ground to speak of two forms of comparison only: the positive degree and the relative degree which exists in two varieties – the comparative degree and the superlative degree [24; 80].

As we know, with regard to the category of the degrees of comparison adjectives fall under two lexico-grammatical subclasses: comparables and non-comparables. The nucleus of the latter is composed of derived adjectives like wooden, Crimean, mathematical, etc. denoting some relation to the phenomena the basic stems refer to. Thus a wooden house is “a house of wood”, Crimean weather is “weather typical of the Crimea”, etc. These adjectives are called relative as distinct from all other adjectives called qualitative.

Most English qualitative adjectives build up opposemes of comparison, but some do not:

a) adjectives that in themselves express the highest degree of a quality, e.g.: supreme, extreme;

b) those having the suffix -ish which indicates the degree of a quality, e.g. reddish, whitish;

c) those denoting qualities which are not compatible with the idea of comparison, e.g.: deaf, dead, lame, perpendicular.

Naturally, all the adjectives which have no comparative and superlative opposites are outside the category of comparison, but they are united by the oblique or lexico-grammatical meaning of the positive degree [24; 79].

Therefore, an English adjective lexeme may contain three words at most (strong – stonger – strongest) representing three grammemes. The fourth grammeme contains words with the oblique meaning of the “positive degree” (deaf, vertical, wooden, etc.). There are no oblique meanings of the “comparative” and the “superlative” degrees in English that is words like calmer, bravest have always “positive degree” opposites [24; 81].

Speaking about Ukrainian adjectives, here the category of degrees of comparison is similarly the ability to render some characteristic feature in different qualitative dimensions (вияв ознаки в різних кількісних вимірах). The positive degree of Ukrainian adjectives is characterized by rendering a certain quality as it is (зелений луг, блакитне небо). The comparative degree acquires a certain relative comparative meaning (розумніший, ніж інші). The adjectives of the superlative degree render the complete absolute advantage of one object upon the other (найактивніші студенти на курсі). The difference between Ukrainian and English adjectives, first of all, lies in the form of expression of degrees of comparison.

Ukrainian comparative degree adjectives have two forms of expression – the simple (synthetic) and the composite (analytical) ones (проста і складена).

The simple form of the comparative degree is formed in the following way: the base of the positive degree is combined with suffixes -іш, -ш and the case or gender ending (біл-ий, біл-іш-ий, біл-іш-і). Some adjectives have the suppletive foms of formation (гарний – кращий).

The composite form of the comparative degree is formed with the help of words більш/менш and the positive degree adjective.

Ukrainian superlative degree adjectives have three forms of expression – simple, complex and composite (проста, складна і складена).

The simple form is created from the comparative degree form with the help of the prefix най-: вищий – найвищий.

The complex form is combining of the superlative degree form with particles як, що: якнайдовший, щонайсильніший.

The composite form is formed with the help of using words-antonyms найбільш/найменш with the positive degree form: найбільш вибагливий, найменш примхливий.

The synthetic form of the superlative degree adjectives can acquire the elative meanings, that is render the largest degree of some quality without comparing it with qualities of other objects, e.g.: найширші кола читачів, без найменших зусиль.

Ukrainian relative and possessive adjectives do not have features characteristic of Ukrainian qualitative adjectives that is they do not form degrees of comparison, they cannot combine with adverbs, and they do not have antonymous counterparts [15; 134–142].

Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that by expression of this category English and Ukrainian adjectives have a lot in common.

Since the category of comparison renders the degree of intensity of some characteristics, expressed by an adjective, it is expressed only by qualitative adjectives in both languages (in the English language also by quantitative adjectives).

Both languages have three degrees of comparison – the positive, the comparative and the superlative ones (звичайний, вищий і найвищий). The comparison can express both the increasing intensity of some characteristics (long–longer–the longest; довгий–довший–найдовший) or the decreasing intensity (interesting–less interesting–the least interesting; цікавий–менш цікавий–найменш цікавий). Degrees of comparison in both languages are created synthetically and analytically.

The synthetic way of comparison creation is carried out with the help of affixes, but differently in each language. In English the comparative and the superlative degrees are formed with the help of suffix adding (er, -est) to the form of the positive degree. In the Ukrainian language the comparative degree is formed with the help of adding the suffix - ш or - іш to the root (ширший, біліший), and the superlative is formed from the comparative degree by adding the prefix най- (найширший, найбіліший).

The analytical way of degree expression, both according to the increasing and the decreasing intensity of characteristic, is formed similarly in both languages: convenient – more convenient – (the) most convenient, зручний – більш зручний – найбільш зручний. The synthetic way of comparison building according to the decreasing intensity of some characteristic is absent in both languages.

There are some peculiarities in the usage of synthetic and analytical forms of comparison in both languages. In English the synthetic forms are created only from one-syllable and partially two-syllable adjective (long, pretty), whereas the analytical way is used to form the comparison of only polysyllabic adjectives (interesting, important). In Ukrainian the usage of this or that way of comparison formation does not depend on the quantity of syllables in the adjective. Both synthetic and analytical forms can be used as parallel ones (зручніший – більш зручний). The choice of this or that form is as a rule dictated by stylistic tasks, but in general synthetic forms of comparison are more spread that analytical ones.

In both languages there is a certain group of adjectives the degrees of comparison of which are formed in a suppletive way (that is from another base), compare: in Ukrainian великий–більший–найбільший, малий–менший–найменший, поганий–гірший–найгір­ший, хороший–кращий (or ліпший) –найкращий (найліпший) and in English many/much–more–the most, little–less–the least, bad–worse–the worst, good–better–the best.

In Ukrainian the forms of comparative and superlative degrees are changed, the same as forms of the positive degree, according to genders, numbers and cases in correspondence with the forms of the noun with which they are connected. In English forms of all degrees of comparison of adjectives are similarly indeclinable.

In both languages the form of the superlative degree can be used with the so-called elative meaning (елятивне значення) (elative – is the absolute superlative degree). It renders the maximum measure of quality without the comparison with other objects, e.g.: найглибша повага, найсуворіша заборона, a most interesting theory, a most clever boy. As it is obvious from the examples in Ukrainian in such cases the synthetic form of the superlative degree is usually used, and in the English language vice versa only the analytical form but with the indefinite article instead of the definite one.

The peculiar form of Ukrainian adjectives is the strengthened superlative degree (підсилений найвищий ступінь) formed by putting together of the superlative degree with the strengthening particle як- or що-: якнайкращий, якнайбільший, якнайрозумніший, щонайкращий, щонайбільший, щонайрозумніший. These forms are also widely used in the elative meaning.

One more peculiar feature of the Ukrainian language in comparison with the English one is the wide usage of qualitative adjectives with two types of suffixes, that is those having the diminutive meaning, and those expressing some sort of augmentative meaning (-есеньк-, -ісіньк-, -юсіньк-, -еньк-, -езн-, -енн- ), as well as with the prefix пре-, e.g.: малесенький, тонесенький, білісінький, чистісінький, тонюсінький, манюсінький, величезний, широчезний, прегарний, предобрий. Such adjectives already by themselves render the degree of the quality expression in one object without the need to compare it with other objects that have a similar characteristic, that is why they do not build degrees of comparison.

Similarly in the English language adjectives with the suffix - ish do not form degrees of comparison (greenish (зеленуватий), darkish (темнуватий)), since they by themselves express week degree of the characteristic.

In general in English there is a considerably fewer number of adjectives with emotional suffixes, that is why meanings which are rendered in Ukrainian by caressing forms, are rendered in English in a descriptive way with the help of defining word combinations (означальні словосполучення) (e.g.: білісінький – very (extremely) white) [5; 53–54].

Discussion questions and exercise tasks:

I. Consider your answers to the following:

1. Mention the groups, into which adjectives are subdivided as a class of lexemes, taking into account their grammatical and semantic characteristics. Provide examples.

2. What are the peculiarities of the Ukrainian qualitative adjectives? Is there any difference between Ukrainian and English qualitative adjectives?

3. Mention the allomorphic groups of adjectives in both contrasted languages.

4. What groups are Ukrainian adjectives divided into according to their morphological structure?

5. Characterize adjective as a part of speech (think of the number of grammatical categories, typical stem-building elements, combinability, syntactic functions). Do these characteristics differ in the contrasted languages?

6. Describe the grammatical categories of adjective as a part of speech. Does their number differ in the contrasted languages?

7. Define the category of the degrees of comparison as a grammatical phenomenon. State the basic similarities and differences in its manifestation by two languages.

8. What is meant by the “elative meaning” expressed by some forms of adjectives? Is it a peculiar feature of both English and Ukrainian adjectives? Provide examples.

 

II. Find all the adjectives in the following piece of writing. Classify these adjectives being either qualitative or relative (if possible other type); comment on their grammatical characteris­tics.

a) in the English language:

A large number of people sat round a table: young girls in white muslin: older women with untidy hair and harassed expressions: a few men peered shyly and solicitously out of the background. All of the faces were made up of small dots. It was a newspaper photograph of a first communion party taken years ago; a youngish man in a Roman collar sat among the women. You could imagine him petted with small delicacies, preserved for their use in the stifling atmosphere of intimacy and respect. He sat there, plump, with protuberant eyes, bubbling with harmless feminine jokes (fiction writing).

*The material is taken from “Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English Workbook” by Susan Conrad, Douglas Biber, Geoffrey Leech, Pearson Education Limited, 2003. – P.51.

b) in the Ukrainian language:

Якого кольору слова? Іноді все в цьому світі уявляється мені синім. Ото начебто ростуть сині тополі понад шляхом, випадають сині дощі.

Тихесенько вимовляю слово “зелений”, і постає переді мною все зелене.

Вимовляю слово “мама” – і ввижається мені добра її усмішка, каре іскристе мерехтіння в очах, ласкаве звучання голосу. Жоден колір, мабуть, не пов’язується з її образом. Тільки здається, наче сяє чимось золотистим від очей, вишневим од губ, яблуками антонівками від щік.

Слово “осінь” туге й жовте, наче віск.

Слово “підсніжник” – біле, і чомусь од нього пахне сніжком, який починає танути, і гострою весняною землею, і торішнім перепрілим листом. (За Є. Гуцалом).

*The material is taken from the article “Нове в програмах і методиці” // Урок Української. – № 5–6, 2005. – P.42–43.