From the graph/ table it is clearNotice that it is best to avoid using personal pronouns. Instead of saying We can see from the graph… it is better to use the passive or impersonal constructions, as above.
GRAMMAR THE INFINITIVE 1. The infinitive can be the subject of the sentence, and translated as the infinitive or a noun. To be a materialist means to accept the primacy of matter. To determine the properties of the substance needs a lot of experiments. 2. As an object it the infinitive is used after the predicate. They have to minimize the disadvantages. 3. The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier. The form of the equation should be simple so as to be useful for the calculation. 4. As an attribute the infinitive is translated by a subordinate clause with the help of the following words: который, должен, нужно, можно. There are many considerations to be taken into account in determining space velocity. 5. As a parenthesis the infinitive is usually used at the beginning of the sentence with a comma after it. This is the list of most frequently used parentheses: to begin (start) with - прежде всего; to judge by – судя по, если судить по; to make a long story short – короче говоря; to mention (only some) – если упомянуть (лишь некоторые); to name (only a few) – если упомянуть (лишь немногие); to put it another way – иначе говоря; to put it briefly – короче говоря; to put it mildly – мягко выражаясь; needless to say – нет надобности говорить о…; to say nothing of - не говоря уже о…; suffice it to say – достаточно сказать; to be exact – точнее говоря; so to speak – так сказать; to sum up – если подвести итог; to quote (a single example) – если привести (один пример); to return – если возвратиться; to tell the truth – по правде говоря. The to-infinitive is used: a) To express purpose. To live long it is necessary to live slowly (M. T. Cicero) b) After certain verbs (advise, agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, manage, offer, promise, refuse, seem, want, afford, etc.) They decided to check the new device. c) After adjectives such as nice, glad, afraid, etc. It was very difficult to do the calculations on time. d) After too and enough Physicists haven’t got enough data to understand this phe –nomenon. e) After it + be +adjective (+ of + noun (pronoun) It is very important to discover any evidence for any graininess in gravity. f) After would like/ would love/would prefer They would prefer to repeat the experiment in another mode. The bare infinitive is used: a) After modal verbs These vertices can be used to represent many different types of interactions. b) After the verbs let, make, see, hear and feel but: be made/ be heard/ be seen + to +infinitive Feynman’s diagrams let physicists to calculate the probability that the interaction will take place. c) After had better and would rather We had better follow some basic rules. Note: if two infinitives are joined by and the to of the second infinitive can be omitted. Forms of the Infinitives Active Voice Passive Voice Present (to) write (to) be written Pres. Cont. (to) be writing Perfect (to) have written (to) have been written Perf. Cont. (to) have been writing The Present Infinitive refers to the present or future. To construct an experiment of this kind seems nearly impossible. The Present Continuous Infinitive expresses an action happening now. Physicists seem to be struggling with this discrepancy. The Perfect Infinitive is used to show that the action of the infinitive happened before the action of the verb. They claim to have seen larger particles behaving like waves. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive is used to emphasize the duration of the action of the infinitive, which happened before the action of the main verb. They seem to have been computing all night. EXERCISES I. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1) To construct an experiment of this kind seems nearly impossible. 2) We attempted to carry out this investigation. 3) To perform this work one must have all the necessary equipment. 4) Rotation spectra can be used to measure bond lengths. 5) With these conditions there are also opposing factors to be considered. 6) It is too urgent a matter to be postponed. 7) Some molecules are large enough to be seen on the electron microscope. 8) Thomas was the first to focus attention on this type of reaction. 9) Two numbers –latitude and longitude, for instance are enough to fix your position. 10) The important thing is to understand what you are doing, rather than to get the right answer. II. Change the sentences according to the model using too and the infinitive. Example: The results are very numerous. They can’t be summarized in this paper. The results are too numerous to be summarized in this paper. 1) The particle is so small that it cannot be seen. 2) This hypothesis is so doubtful that it cannot be discussed in this review. 3) This phenomenon is so rare that it cannot be satisfactorily explained. 4) The theory is so extensive that it cannot be given here. 5) The classification is so complicated that it cannot be used in practice. 6) The experiment is carried out so carelessly that it cannot be considered valid. 7) This problem is so complex that it cannot be solved at present. 8) The theoretical analysis is so complicated that it cannot be tested by experiment. 9) The data are so contradictory that they cannot be relied upon. 10) The applications of electricity are so numerous that they cannot be considered in this article. III. Complete the sentences with the infinitive so that they are true for you. 1) I have recently decided to… 2) I’m flexible, but one thing I refuse to do is… 3) Five years from now, I hope… 4) I’m satisfied that I can afford… 5) I’m sure I will manage… 6) I confess that one thing I tend to do is… 7) I want… 8) I expect… IV. Practice to use different infinitives after modal verbs. 1) Должно быть, он… He must be ill. He must be staying in the lab. He must have finished the computing. He must have been working since 8 a. m. Translate into English 2) Должно быть он уже заполнил таблицу. 3) Возможно он сейчас заполняет таблицу. 4) Должно быть он заполняет таблицу после каждого считывания показаний приборов. 5) Возможно он заполняет эту таблицу несколько часов. WRITING V. Translate the paragraph into Russian. Quarks and the Strong Force. Quarks are half of the fundamental matter particles in the Universe. According to the Standard model of particle physics, each elementary particle comes with an opposite antiparticle, so there are six quarks and also six antiquarks. Quarks are never found in nature as individual, isolated particles because they bind very strongly to each other via the strong force. The strong force is one of the four fundamental forces of physics. Like the more familiar electric force, it has positive and negative charges. Unlike the electric force, there are three of them rather than one. Physicists find it convenient to think of them as if they were three primary colors – one red, one green, one blue – because the way they work is just like the RBG color system. VI. Translate the paragraph into English. Слабое взаимодействие. Слабое взаимодействие введено в физику элементарных частиц для объяснения явления бета-распада ядра. Слабое взаимодействие проявляется на расстояниях значительно меньших радиуса ядра. В слабом взаимодействии участвуют лептоны, кварки и частицы нейтрино. Слабое взаимодействие слабее электромагнитного и сильнее гравитационного. Слабое взаимодействие позволяет лептонам и кваркам превращаться в античастицы, то есть обмениваться квантовыми числами, энергией, массой, электрическими зарядами. Переносчиками слабого взаимодействия являются виртуальные W- и Z - бозоны. Слабое взаимодействие нарушает все виды симметрии, позволяет кваркам одного аромата прев -ращаться в кварки другого аромата, заряженным лептонам превращаться в нейтрино. MINI GRAMMAR Plural of the nouns of Greek and Latin origin
5) Give the plural of the words in italics. Make the changes if necessary. 1. We do research in a line spectrum. 2. The radius of the tubes has been measured. 3. This phenomenon is difficult to observe. 4. The formula has been verified in a variety of experiments. 5. The analysis of the experiments suggests some new ideas. 6. The binding energy of a nucleus is determined experimentally. 7. This criterion should be satisfied. 8. Do you know any hypothesis concerned with the origin of the solar system? APPENDIX The names of the elements in English. 1 - H - Hydrogen 2 - He - Helium 3 - Li - Lithium 4 - Be - Beryllium 5 - B - Boron 6 - C - Carbon 7 - N - Nitrogen 8 - O - Oxygen 9 - F - Fluorine 10 - Ne - Neon 11 - Na - Sodium 12 - Mg - Magnesium 13 - Al - Aluminum, Aluminium 14 - Si - Silicon 15 - P - Phosphorus 16 - S - Sulfur 17 - Cl - Chlorine 18 - Ar - Argon 19 - K - Potassium 20 - Ca - Calcium 21 - Sc - Scandium 22 - Ti - Titanium 23 - V - Vanadium 24 - Cr - Chromium 25 - Mn - Manganese 26 - Fe - Iron 27 - Co - Cobalt 28 - Ni - Nickel 29 - Cu - Copper 30 - Zn - Zinc 31 - Ga - Gallium 32 - Ge - Germanium 33 - As - Arsenic 34 - Se - Selenium 35 - Br - Bromine 36 - Kr - Krypton 37 - Rb - Rubidium 38 - Sr - Strontium 39 - Y - Yttrium 40 - Zr - Zirconium 41 - Nb - Niobium 42 - Mo - Molybdenum 43 - Tc - Technetium 44 - Ru - Ruthenium 45 - Rh - Rhodium 46 - Pd - Palladium 47 - Ag - Silver 48 - Cd - Cadmium 49 - In - Indium 50 - Sn - Tin 51 - Sb - Antimony 52 - Te - Tellurium 53 - I - Iodine 54 - Xe - Xenon 55 - Cs - Cesium 56 - Ba - Barium 57 - La - Lanthanum 58 - Ce - Cerium 59 - Pr - Praseodymium 60 - Nd - Neodymium 61 - Pm - Promethium 62 - Sm - Samarium 63 - Eu - Europium 64 - Gd - Gadolinium 65 - Tb - Terbium 66 - Dy - Dysprosium 67 - Ho - Holmium 68 - Er - Erbium 69 - Tm - Thulium 70 - Yb - Ytterbium 71 - Lu - Lutetium 72 - Hf - Hafnium 73 - Ta - Tantalum 74 - W - Tungsten 75 - Re - Rhenium 76 - Os - Osmium 77 - Ir - Iridium 78 - Pt - Platinum 79 - Au - Gold 80 - Hg - Mercury 81 - Tl - Thallium 82 - Pb - Lead 83 - Bi - Bismuth 84 - Po - Polonium 85 - At - Astatine 86 - Rn - Radon 87 - Fr - Francium 88 - Ra - Radium 89 - Ac - Actinium 90 - Th - Thorium 91 - Pa - Protactinium 92 - U - Uranium 93 - Np - Neptunium 94 - Pu - Plutonium 95 - Am - Americium 96 - Cm - Curium 97 - Bk - Berkelium 98 - Cf - Californium 99 - Es - Einsteinium 100 - Fm - Fermium 101 - Md - Mendelevium 102 - No - Nobelium 103 - Lr - Lawrencium 104 - Rf - Rutherfordium 105 - Db - Dubnium 106 - Sg - Seaborgium 107 - Bh - Bohrium 108 - Hs - Hassium 109 - Mt - Meitnerium 110 - Ds - Darmstadtium 111 - Rg - Roentgenium 112 - Cn - Copernicium 113 - Uut - Ununtrium 114 - Fl - Flerovium 115 - Uup - Ununpentium 116 - Lv - Livermorium 117 - Uus - Ununseptium 118 - Uuo - Ununoctium
1 B ANTIMATTER ‘For every one billion particles of antimatter there were one billion and one particles of matter. And when the mutual annihilation was complete, one billionth remained- and that’s our present universe,’ Albert Enstein,1879-1955 I. In pairs or small groups, discuss the questions. 1. What is antimatter? 2. Where is all antimatter? 3. What can happen when matter and antimatter come into contact? II. Read and complete the text using the words below.
The Mysteries of Antimatter. Fictional spaceships are often 1)… by ‘antimatter drives’, yet antimatter itself is real and has even been made artificially on Earth. The history of antimatter’s discovery began in 1928 when British physicist Paul Dirac saw that his equation for the electron offered the possibility that electrons could have negative as well as positive energy. Dirac had two ways of solving his problem: positive energy was expected, associated with a normal electron, but negative energy made no sense. But rather than ignore this confusing term, Dirac suggested that such particles might actually exist. This 2)… state of matter is antimatter. The hunt for antimatter began quickly. In 1932 Carl Anderson confirmed the existence of positrons 3)…. He was following the tracks of showers of particles produced by cosmic rays. He saw the track of a positively charged particle with the electron’s mass, positron. So antimatter was no longer just an abstract idea but real. It took another two decades before the next antiparticle, the antiproton, was 4)…. Physicists built new particle-accelerating machines that used magnetic fields to increase the speeds of particles travelling through them. Such powerful beams of 5)… protons produced enough energy to reveal the antiproton in 1955. Soon afterwards, the antineutron was found. With the antimatter equivalent building blocks in place, was it possible to build an anti-atom, or at least an anti-nucleus? The answer was yes. A heavy hydrogen (6…) anti-nucleus (an anti-deuterium), containing an antiproton and antineutron, was created by scientists at CERN in Europe and Brookhaven Laboratory in America. Tagging on a positron to an antiproton to make a hydrogen anti-atom (anti-hydrogen) took a little longer, but it was achieved in 1995. Today experimenters are testing whether anti-hydrogen behaves in the same way as normal hydrogen. On Earth, physicists can create antimatter in particle accelerators. When the beams of particles meet, they annihilate each other in a 7)… of pure energy. Mass is converted to energy according Einstien’s E= mc2. So if you met your antimatter twin it might not be such a good idea to throw arms around them. Like all mirror images, particles and their antiparticles are related by different kinds of symmetry. One is time. Because of their negative energy, antiparticles are equivalent mathematically to normal particles moving 8)… in time. So a positron can be thought of an electron travelling from future to past. The next symmetry involves charges and other quantum properties, which are reversed, and is known as ‘charge conjugation ’. A third symmetry regards motion through space. Returning to Mach’s principle, motions are generally 9)… if we change the direction of coordinates marking out the grid of space. A particle moving left to right looks the same as one moving right to left, or is unchanged whether spinning clockwise or anticlockwise. This ‘ parity ’ symmetry is true of most particles, but there are a few for which it does not always hold. Neutrinos exist in only one form, as a left-handed neutrino, spinning one direction; there is no such thing as a right-handed neutrino. The converse is true for antineutrinos which are all right- handed. So parity symmetry can sometimes be broken, although a combination of charge conjugation and parity is conserved, called charge-parity or CP symmetry for short. Just as chemists find that some molecules prefer to exist in one version, as a left-handed or right-handed structure, it is a major puzzle why the universe contains mostly matter and not antimatter. A tiny fraction – less than 0.01% - of the stuff in the universe is made of antimatter. But the universe also contains forms of energy, including a lot of photons. So it is possible that a vast amount of matter and antimatter was created in the big bang, but then most of it annihilated shortly after. Only the tip of the iceberg now remains. A minuscule imbalance in favor of matter would be enough to explain its dominance now. To do this, only 1 in every 1010 matter particles needed to survive a split second after the big bang, the remainder being annihilated. The 10)… matter was likely preserved via a slight asymmetry from CP symmetry violation. Detected backwards leftover deuterium complementary unaffected powered speeding experimentally III. Read the text again and find the words that mean the same as the following phrases. a) Similarity under reflection or rotation or re-scaling; b) A line of light, electric waves or particles; c) Combination of some things; d) Either of two numbers or letters used to fix the position of a point on a map or graph; e) A statement showing that two amounts or values are equal; f) The act or process of moving or the way something moves; g) The state of being equal; h) The rate at which sb/sth moves or travels; i) The path or direction that sb/sth is moving in; j) To destroy sb/sth completely. IV. In pairs, discuss and write the definitions for the following terms from the text. Use a dictionary to help you. Antimatter imbalance minuscule positron fraction particle accelerator to convert pure affect to reverse nucleus equivalent V. Read the sentences and mark T (true) or F (false). 1) It is easy to produce antimatter in the form of anti-atoms. 2) Almost all matter observable from the Earth seems to be made of matter rather than antimatter. 3) Many different antiparticles are produced by cosmic rays. 4) An antiproton consists of one up anti-quark and two down anti-quarks. 5) Antiparticles are produced naturally in beta decay. 6) The neutron is made out of quarks, the antineutron from anti-quarks. 7) The parity symmetry is true to all particles. 8) An antiproton and a proton can form an anti-hydrogen atom. 9) Neutral particles can have antiparticles. VI. Complete each sentence by matching it with the appropriate ending. 1) Antiparticle bind with each other 2) Recent research by the American Astronomical Society has discovered antimatter 3) Antimatter in the form of charged particles can be contained 4) Since the antineutron is electrically neutral 5) The asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is 6) Antiparticles are created naturally 7) Generating a single antiproton is a) Immensely difficult and required particles accelerators and vast amount of energy; b) One of the greatest unsolved problems in physics; c) To form antimatter just as ordinary particles bind to form normal matter; d) By a combination of electric and magnetic fields; e) When high-energy particle collisions take place; f) It can’t be easily observed directly; g) Originating above thunderstorm clouds. VII. Answer the questions to the text. 1) How did Paul Daric come to the idea of the existence of antimatter? 2) Where did the researchers get the first results in this field? 3) How did it become possible to build an anti-atom and anti-nucleus? 4) How can antimatter be built on Earth? 5) What are the consequences of meeting particles and antiparticles? 6) What kinds of symmetry are particles and antiparticles related by? 7) What does parity symmetry mean? 8) How does the author explain the dominance imbalance in favor of matter in the universe? VIII. In pairs, role-play conversation in which a physicist explains to a layperson Why the formation of matter after the Big Bang resulted in a universe consisting almost entirely of matter, rather than being a half-and half mixture of matter and antimatter. IX. Look at the diagram and describe it. The purpose of a diagram is normally to show a process, how apiece of equipment works, or the operational structure of a system. The vocabulary will mostly be closely related to the special subject matter being shown. There are two aspects of the language that you will require for describing most diagrams and you should make sure that you know how to use them well: a) The verbs will normally be in the present tense and the passive voice. b) Where a process or structure is being presented, you will need a variety of connectors showing stages or time. c) Do not attempt to describe the diagram in colorful or interesting language. There is no need for adjectives or adverbs. d) Avoid repetition and try to vary your language. e) Do not simply use firstly, secondly, etc. or then to link different stages. Here are some other possibilities: In the first/second/etc. stage… Next… The process continues with… After this… You can also use then after the subject of your sentence, instead of the beginning: The water is then transported.
X. In pairs or small groups, choose any topic from the list below and prepare an oral report. 1) Gravity works the same way on all matter – but what about antimatter? 2) Could we make an anti- world? 3) Could antimatter be used to make the ultimate bomb? XI. Listen to ‘What Happened to Antimatter?’ and complete the notes. Check and compare your answers. 1) Can energy be made into matter? How? 2) What does 50/50 mean here? 3) What happens at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider every second? 4) What do a positron and an anti-positron have in common? 5) How do they differ from protons and anti-protons? 6) How would an anti-world look like? 7) Why didn’t matter annihilate after the colliding with anti-matter after the Big Bang? WRITING I. Translate the paragraph into Russian. Universal Asymmetries If antimatter were spread across the universe, the annihilation episodes would be occurring all the time. Matter and antimatter would gradually destroy each other in little explosions, mopping each other up. Because we don’t see this, there cannot be much antimatter around. In fact normal matter is the only widespread form of particle we see, by a very large margin. So at the outset of the creation of the universe there must have been an imbalance such that more normal matter was created than its antimatter opposite. II. Translate the paragraph into English. Ёще в 2002 году в Европейском центре ядерных исследований физики впервые получили ощутимое количество антивещества- примерно 50 тысяч атомов антиводорода. Но всё полученное антивещество мгновенно самоуничтожилось, взаимодействуя с нормальным веществом. Ныне физикам удалось собрать полученные атомы в хитрую ловушку- так называемою «магнитную бутылку». Им удалось воспроизвести 38 атомов антиводорода, некоторые из них прсуществовали одну десятую долю секунды, что дало ученым достаточную почву для их изучений.
1 C NUCLEAR FISSION ‘…gradually we came to the idea that perhaps one should not think of the nucleus being cleaved in half as with a chisel but rather that perhaps there was something Bohr’s idea that the nucleus was like a liquid drop.’ Otto Frish, 1967 I. In pairs or small groups, discuss the questions. 1) What is nuclear fission? 2) Why is nuclear power used to produce electricity? 3) Why is nuclear power very dangerous? II. Read and complete the text using the words below. NUCLEAR FISSION The demonstration of nuclear fission is one of the great highs and lows of science. Its discovery marked a huge 1)… in our understanding of nuclear physics, and broke the dawn of atomic energy. But the umbrella of war meant this new 2)… was implemented almost immediately in nuclear weapons, devastating the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and unleashing a proliferation problem that remains difficult to resolve. At the start of the 20th century, the atom’s 3)… world began to be revealed. Like a Russian doll, it contains many 4)… shells of electrons enveloping a hard kernel or nucleus. By the early 1930th, the nucleus itself was 5)…, showing it to be a mix of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, both much heavier than the ephemeral electron, and bonded together by the strong nuclear force. Unlocking the energy glue of the nucleus became a holy grail of scientists. In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom 6)… into smaller parts, often producing free electrons and lighter nuclei, which may eventually produce photons (in the form of gamma rays). Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic r eaction which can release large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating the bulk material where fission takes place). For fission to produce energy, the 7)… binding energy of the resulting elements has to be higher than that of the starting element. Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting fragments are not the same element as the original one. Nuclear fission produces energy for nuclear power and to drive the explosions of nuclear weapons. Both uses are made possible because certain substances called nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by 8)… neutrons and in turn generate neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self- sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or at a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon. The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is millions of times the amount of free energy 9)… in a small mass of chemical fuel such as gasoline, making nuclear fission a very tempting source of energy; however, the products of nuclear fission are radioactive and 10)… so for significant amounts of time, giving rise to a nuclear waste problem. In nature, very few materials exist that undergo nuclear reaction. The most common are uranium- 235 and plutonium- 239. Uranium comes in two types, or isotopes, hosting different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. The most common isotope, uranium-238 is ten times more common than the other, uranium-235. It is uranium uranium-235 that is most effective for a fission bomb, so raw uranium is enriched in uranium-235. When uranium- 238 receives a neutron it becomes plutonium-239. Plutonium-239 is unstable and its breakdown produces even more neutrons per gram, so mixing in plutonium can trigger the chain reaction readily.
Splits outer cracked free remain leap total contained technology inner
III. Read the text again and find the words that mean the same as the following phrases. a) producing heat; b) completely destroying something; c) was officially decided to be used; d) a place, person or thing that you get something from; e) to experience something; f) the increase in the number or amount of something; g) changing something into something different; h) an object that is used for fighting or attacking; i) covering something completely; j) maintaining or able to maintain oneself or itself by independent effort. IV. In pairs, discuss and write definitions for the following terms from the text. Fission isotope radioactive raw trigger substance explosion fuel kinetic split V. Answer the following questions. 1) What kind of energy is released during a nuclear reaction? 2) Why is it possible to use nuclear fission to produce electricity? 3) Why is the use of nuclear fuel more advantageous than chemical fuel? 4) How does uranium-238 become plutonium-239? VI. Complete these sentences with information that reflects your personal views. 1) To obtain energy by manipulating one or several nuclei of atoms we can do it using two ways… 2) Not all neutrons are able to continue the fission reaction… 3) The amount of critical mass of fissile material is dependent on several factors… 4) In order to enrich uranium… VII. Read the statements and mark T (true) or F (false) 1) In spontaneous nuclear fission the outer absorption is necessary. 2) Plutonium-239 has a low spontaneous fission rate compared with the rate of spontaneous fission of uranium-235. 3) Nuclear fission cannot occur without neutron bombardment. 4) During nuclear fission the sum of the masses of the fragments is smaller than the original mass. 5) The critical mass is the biggest amount of fissile material for a nuclear chain reaction is maintained. 6) The amount of critical mass of fissile material doesn’t depend on its purity. 7) The most common use of controlled nuclear fission is in nuclear reactors. 8) The self- sustaining release of neutrons is known as a chain reaction. VIII. Look at the diagram and describe it.
IX. Complete each sentence by matching it with the appropriate ending. 1) In nuclear energy we call nuclear fission the action 2) During a nuclear reaction the core becomes different fragments 3) Nuclear fission occur when a nucleus of o heavy atom 4) A nuclear chain reaction is a process by which neutrons are released in a first nuclear fission 5) Controlled reactions would be produced in nuclear reactions in nuclear plants that 6) If two neutrons are released in each fission caused by a neutron 7) If neutrons released by each nuclear reaction are lost faster than they are formed by the fission rate 8) Light water is the term used a) the chain reaction will not be self-sustaining and will stop. b) produce additional fission in at least one more core. c) having a mass almost equal to half of the original mass and two or three neutrons. d) to describe water made using the common isotope protium, which has a single proton in its nucleus. e) then the number of fissions doubles on each generation. f) to split the nucleus of an atom. g) captures a neutron, or can occur spontaneously due to the instability of the isotope. h) generate electricity where their objective is steadily
X. In pairs, role-play a conversation in which a scientist explains a layperson what nuclear fission is. XI. Listen and watch ‘ Fission and Fusion” video and be ready to comment it in pairs or small groups. XII. Translate the paragraph into Russian. The Controlled Nuclear Reaction To maintain a sustained nuclear reaction control for every two or three neutrons released, only one should be allowed to give another uranium nucleus. If this ratio is less than the one then the reaction will die, and if it is larger will grow uncontrollably. To control the amount of free electrons in the reaction space an absorber of neutrons must be present. Most reactors are controlled by control rods made of neutron absorbing material in a strong, like boron or cadmium. In addition to the need to capture neutrons, the neutrons often have high kinetic energy. These fast neutrons are reduced through the use of a moderator, such as heavy water and tap water. Some reactors use graphite as a moderator, but this design has some problems. Once the fast neutrons are slowed they are more likely to produce more nuclear fissions or be absorbed by the control bar. XIII.Translate the following paragraph into English. ПОЧЕМУ ИЗОТОПЫ РАСПАДАЮТСЯ? В ядре атома находятся протоны, которые сконцентрированы в очень малом пространстве. В ядре атома действуют некие удерживающие силы, которые не дают одноименно заряженным нейтронам разорвать ядро атома. Но иногда энергия отталкивания частиц превосходит энергию склеивания, и ядро раскалывается на части - происходит радиоактивный распад. Ученые установили, что все химические элементы, в ядре которых более 84 протонов, являются нестабильными и время от времени подвергаются радиоактивному распаду. Однако, существуют изотопы, в ядре которых меньше 84 протонов, но они тоже являются радиоактивными. Дело в том, что о стабильности изотопа можно судить по соотношению количества протонов и нейтронов атома. Изотоп будет нестабилен, если разность между количеством протонов и нейтронов велика. Изотоп элемента будет устойчивым, если количество нейтронов и протонов в его атоме примерно равно. Поэтому, неустойчивые изотопы, подвергаясь радиоактивному распаду, превращаются в другие элементы. Процесс превращения будет идти до тех пор, пока не образуется устойчивый изотоп. XIV. In pairs or small groups look for information on one of the topics from the list below and prepare an oral report. 1) Tell how a nuclear reactor works. 2) Tell about the latest achievements in nuclear research. 3) Tell about applications of nuclear power.
1. D NUCLEAR FUSION ‘I ask you to look both ways. For the road to a knowledge of the stars leads through the atom; and important knowledge of the atom has been reached through the stars’ Sir Arthur Eddington, 1928 I. In pairs or small groups, discuss the questions. 1) What is nuclear fission? 2) Why are researchers trying to get fusion power on Earth? 3) Do you believe that they will succeed in this field? Why? II. Read and complete the text using the words below. Nuclear Fusion All elements around us, including those in our bodies, are the 1)… of nuclear fusion. Fusion powers stars like the Sun, within which all the elements heavier than hydrogen are cooked up. We really are made of stardust. If we can harness the stars’ power on Earth, fusion could even be the key to 2)… clean energy. Nuclear fusion is the merging together of light atomic nuclei to form heavier ones. When pressed together hard enough, hydrogen nuclei can merge to produce, 3)… giving off energy – a great deal of energy – in the process. Gradually, by building up heavier and heavier nuclei through a series of fusion reactions, all the elements that we se around us can be created from scratch. Fusing together even the lightest nuclei, such as hydrogen, is tremendously difficult. Enormous 4)… and pressures are needed, so fusion only happens naturally in extreme places, like the Sun and other stars. For two nuclei to merge, the forces that hold each one together must be overcome. Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons locked together by the strong nuclear force. The strong force is 5)… at the tiny scale of the nucleus, and much weaker outside the nucleus. Because protons are positively charged, their electrical charges 6)… one another, so pushing each other apart slightly as well. But the strong force glue is more powerful so the nucleus 7)… together. Because the strong nuclear force acts over such a short precise range, its combined strength is greater for small nuclei than for large ones. For a weighty nucleus, such as uranium, with 238 8)…, the mutual attraction will not be as strong between nucleons on opposite sides of the nucleus. The electric repulsive force, on the other hand, is still felt at large separations and so becomes stronger for large nuclei because it can span the whole nucleus. It is also boosted by the greater numbers of positive charges they contain. The net effect of this balance is that the energy needed to 9)… the nucleus together, averaged per nucleon, increases with atomic weight up to the elements nickel and iron, which are very stable, then drops off again for larger nuclei. So fission of large nuclei happens 10)… easily as they can be disrupted by a minor knock. For fusion, the energy barrier to overcome is least for hydrogen isotopes that contain just a single proton. Hydrogen comes in three types: ‘normal’ hydrogen atoms contain one proton surrounded by a single electron; deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, has one proton, one electron and also one neutron; tritium has two neutrons added, so it is even heavier. The simplest fusion reaction therefore is the combination of hydrogen and deuterium to form 11)… plus a lone neutron. Although it is the simplest, scorching temperatures of 800 million kelvins are needed to ignite even this reaction. On Earth, physicists are trying to replicate these extreme conditions in fusion reactors to generate power. However, they are decades off from achieving this in practice. Even advanced fusion machines take in more energy than they give out, by orders of magnitude. Unlimited tritium holds product repel helium dominant temperatures relatively nucleons bind III. Read the text again and find the words that mean the same as the following phrases. a) used to describe actions that affect two or more things equally; b) to succeed in dealing with or controlling something; c) a range of levels or numbers used for measuring something; d) closely connected with something; e) made something increase, or become better; f) made it difficult for something to continue in the normal way; g) to become fewer or less; h) to control and use the force or strength of something to produce power or achieve something; i) to start or make something to burn; j) to combine or make two or more things to form a single thing. IV. In pairs or small groups discuss the definitions for the following terms from the text. Nucleons span atomic weight a kelvin replicate give off reactor to press generate power V. Answer the questions to the text. 1) Why does fusion happen naturally only in extreme places? 2) Why is the strong nuclear force greater for small nuclei than for large ones? 3) What isotopes can be used for the simplest fusion reaction? Why? 4) Why is it difficult to generate power from fusion on Earth? VI. Complete these sentences with information that reflects your personal views. 1) The deuterium-tritium fusion reaction is the most promising for producing sustainable fusion power… 2) Research into controlled fusion is accompanied by extreme scientific and technological difficulties… 3) In order to be useful as a source of energy, a fusion reaction must satisfy several criteria… VII. Read the sentences and mark T (True) or F (False). 1) In physics, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple atomic particle are joint together to form a heavier nucleus. 2) It takes relatively little energy to force nuclei to fuse. 3) Whereas the fusion of heavy elements in stars releases energy, production of the lightest elements absorbs energy. 4) The energy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than in chemical reactions. 5) The fusion of two nuclei lighter than iron generally absorbs energy while the fusion of nuclei heavier than iron releases energy. 6) Nuclear fusion occurs naturally in stars. 7) Reactions which are not self-sustaining can release considerable energy, as well as numbers f neutrons. 8) When the fusion reaction is a sustained uncontrolled chain, it can result in a thermonuclear explosion. VIII. Look at the chart and describe it.
IX. In pairs role-pay a conversation in which a scientist explains a layperson the necessity of further research into fusion. X. Complete each sentence by matching it with the appropriate ending. 1) At large distances two naked nuclei repel one another because 2) If two nuclei can be brought close enough together 3) When a nucleon such as a proton or neutron is added to a nucleus 4) Compared with fission technology 5) Fusion power does not produce 6) Very few atoms are needed 7) At the high temperatures involved, controlling the scorching gases 8) Fusion power is not perfect and will a) fusion reactors are relatively clean and, should they work, efficient. b) the nuclear force attracts it to other nucleons c) produce some radioactive by-products as neutrons are released in the main reactions. d) is the main difficulty, so although fusion has been achieved these machines only work for a few seconds at a time. e) greenhouse gases. f) to produce huge amounts of energy. g) of the repulsive electrostatic force between their positively charged protons. h) The electrostatic repulsion can be overcome by attractive nuclear force which is stronger at close distances XI. Listen to ‘ Nuclear Fusion” and complete the notes. Check and compare your answers. 1) Nuclear fusion is… 2) It releases more energy than… 3) What happens during the reaction of nuclear fusion? 4) Why is it so important to harness the fusion power? XII. Choose the correct answer A, B, or C Natural Occurrence In nature, fusion occurs in stars. On Earth, nuclear fusion was first achieved in the explosion of the 1)… bomb. In a non-destructive manner, fusion has also reached in different experimental devices 2)… at studying the possibility of producing energy in a controlled fashion.3)…, fission is a nuclear process which does not normally occur in nature. The reason for this is that it requires a large mass and an incident 4)… to initiate the process. But there have been 5)… where nuclear fission has occurred in natural reactors. If accidentally, a fission reactor goes out of control as a result of not controlling the emission of neutrons, a nuclear meltdown can happen which can the 6)… highly radioactive particles in the atmosphere. In contrast, in case of nuclear fusion if the reactor goes out of control, the reaction would 7)… automatically as it will cool down. In addition, in case of nuclear fusion reaction, the amount of radioactive materials produced as 8)… is very small and the 9)… damage which could happen is the 10)… of anything in the immediate vicinity of the reaction. 1) A nuclear B hydrogen C neutron 2) A produced B tested C aimed 3) A on the other hand B moreover C although 4) A proton B electron C neutron 5) A incidents B accidents C examples 6) A release B absorb C collide 7) A continue B stop C change 8) A waste B energy C electricity 9) A minimum B maximum C average 10) A vaporization B freezing C heating
XIII. Translate the paragraph into Russian. Stardust Stars are nature’s fusion reactors. Within stars, heavier elements are gradually built up in steps by fusion. Larger and larger nuclei are constructed through a succession of burning first hydrogen, then helium, then other elements lighter than iron and, eventually, elements heavier than iron. Stars like the Sun shine because they are mostly fusing hydrogen into helium and this proceeds slowly enough that heavy elements are made in only small quantities. In bigger stars this reaction is sped up by the involvement of the elements carbon, nitrogen and oxygen in further reactions. So more heavy elements are made more quickly. Once helium is present, carbon can be made from it. As soon as some carbon is made it can combine with helium to make oxygen, neon and magnesium. These slow transformations take most life of the star. XIV. Translate the paragraph into English Радиационная безопасность Термоядерный реактор намного безопаснее ядерного реактора в радиационном отношении. Прежде всего, количество находящихся в нем радиоактивных веществ сравнительно невелико. Энергия, которая может выделиться в результате какой-либо аварии, тоже мала и не может привести к разрушению реактора. При этом в конструкции реактора есть несколько естественных барьеров, препятствующих распространению радиоактивных веществ. Например, вакуумная камера и оболочка криостата должны быть герметичными, иначе реактор просто не будет работать. Для того, чтобы предотвратить распространение радиоактивных веществ, если они выйдут за пределы вакуумной камеры и криостата, необходима специальная система вентиляции, которая должна поддерживать в здании реактора пониженное давление. Поэтому из здания не будет утечек воздуха, кроме как через фильтры вентиляции. XV. Appendix Mathematical symbols in English.
XVI. Write an article in which you can compare the properties and their strong and weak sides and express your opinion on the future possibilities to use these kinds of energy to get electricity.
VOCABULARY LIST Absorption n Bond,v Boost,v By-product,n Complementary,adj Conjugation,n Devastate,v Disrupt,v Emerge,v Emission,n Enrich,v Equation,n Envelope,v Equivalence,n Exothermic,adj Fissile,v Infinitesimal,adj Ignite,v Implement,v Infer,v Harness,v Leftover,n Map,v Mediate,v Minuscule,adj Multiplication,n Mutual,adj Parity,n Perpendicular,adj Proliferation,n Purity,n Replicate,v Repulsive,adj Seek,v Self-sustaining,adj Spontaneous,adj Transmutation,n Trigger,v Undergo,v Unleash,v Vicinity,n
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