БЕЛОРУССКАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ

 

Перекладіть та вивчіть наступні словосполучення:

 

 

I. Вища медична освіта.

1. клінічний курс a clinical course
2. відвідувати лекції to attend lectures
3. вищий учбовий заклад a higher educational institution
4. здобувати глибокі знання to gain deep knowledge
5. діагнозувати хвороби to diagnose diseases
6. проводити лабораторні аналізи to carry out laboratory analyses
7. набувати досвіду to gain experience
8. інтернатура та магістратура internship and magistracy
9. акушерство та педіатрія obstetrics and pediatrics
10. хірургія та психіатрія surgery and psychiatry

 

2.Система охорони здоров”я.

1. Медичне страхування medical insurance

2. спалах інфекційних хвороб the outbreak of infectious disease

3. заразна хвороба virulent disease

4. умови навколишнього середовища environmental conditions

5. медична аптечка a first-aid kit

1. зупинити кровотечу to stop bleeding
2. штучний дихальний апарат artificial respiration apparatus
3. спостерігати за роботою серця to monitor a patient’s heart work

9. хворобливість morbidity

10.смертність mortality

3. Системи медичних закладів

1. захищати здоров’я людей to protect the health of people
2. оглядати пацієнта to examine a patient
3. міряти кров’яний тиск to measure blood pressure
4. поставити правильний діагноз to make a correct diagnosis
5. отримати лікарняний лист to receive a sick-leave
6. заповнювати історію хвороби to fill in a case history
7. приймати прописані ліки to take the prescribed remedies
8. викликати несприятливі реакції to cause unfavourable reactions
9. назначати різні процедури to administer different procedures
10. невідкладна медична допомога Emergency medical service
11. викликати швидку допомогу to call in ambulance
12. призначення ліків administration of drugs
13. сип та набряк rash and swelling
14. переломи та тріщини fractures and fissure

15.забезпечувати населення ліками to supply the population with medicines

16.відділ продажу готових ліків a chemist's department

17.рецептурний відділ a prescription department

18.термін дії expiry date

19.протипоказання та побічні дії contraindictions and side effects

20.жарознижувальні та блювотні засоби antipyretic and anti-emetic drugs

21.аптечка a first-aid kit

22.побічна дія ліків side effect of drugs

23.проводити фізичний огляд to carry out physical examination

24.розвиток захворювання the development of the disease

 

4. Цитологія та мікробіологія

1. генетичний матеріал genetic material
2. багатоклітинні мікроорганізми multicellular microorganisms

3. процес поділу клітин the process of cell division

4. паличкоподібні бактерії rod-shaped bacteria

5. викликати інфекцію to cause infection

1. клітина-господар the host cell
2. гістологічні зрізи histological sections
3. частота мутацій rate of mutations
4. вбивати шкідливі бактерії to kill harmful bacteria

 

5. Анатомія людини.

1. Складатися з голови, тулуба та кінцівок to consist of the head, the trunk, and limbs (extremities)

2. Орган нюху the organ of smell

3. орган зору the organ of sight (vision)

4. Бути вкритим шкірою to be covered with skin

5. Розташовиватися у роті to be located in the mouth

6. пальці руки і ноги fingers and toes

7. захищати органи від ушкоджень to protect the organs from injury

8. зап’ясток та кисть the wrist and the hand

9. коліно та щиколотка knee and ankle

10.тверде та м’яке піднебіння hard and soft palates

11.верхня та нижня кінцівки upper and lower extremities

12.поверхня тіла the surface of the body

13.орган смаку the organ of taste

14.орган зору the organ of sight (vision)

15.ротова порожнина oral cavity

16.каркас із кісток the framework of bones

17.черевна порожнина abdominal cavity

1. хребетний стовп spinal column
2. кістковий мозок bone marrow
3. зв’язки та сухожилля ligaments and tendons
4. шійні хребці cervical vertebrea

22.осьовий скелет the axial skeleton

23.додатковий скелет appendicular skeleton

24.отвір в перегородці серця the opening in the septum

25.поперекові хребці lumbar vertebrae

26.грудні хребці thoracic vertebrae

 

6. Серцево-судинна та респіраторна системи

1. м’язовий насос muscular pump
2. складатися з передсердь та шлуночків to consist of atria and ventricles
3. велике коло кровообігу the systemic circulation
4. скорочуватись ритмічно to contract rhythmically
5. передсердя та шлуночки atria and ventricles
6. мале коло кровообігу the pulmonary circulation
7. серцевий м’яз the cardiac muscle
8. нервові волокна nerve fibers
9. загальна маса крові the total weight of the blood
10. хвиля скорочення the wave of contraction
11. частота серцебиття the rate of heartbeat
12. фізичне навантаження the physical exertion
13. серцевий цикл a cardiac cycle
14. тривале скорочення шлуночків prolonged contraction of the ventricles
15. рідина тіла bodily fluid
16. кров’яна клітина blood cell
17. білкові молекули крові protein molecules of blood
18. залізовмісний білок an iron-containing protein
19. згортання крові blood coagulation
20. призвести до утворення тромбів to lead to blood agglutination
21. спадковість inheritance
22. закупорювати кровоносні судини to obstruct blood vessels
23. донорська кров donated blood
24. бути сумісним з кров’ю одержувача to be compatible with the recipient blood

 

1. носова та ротова порожнини nasal and oral cavities
2. кисень та вуглекислий газ oxygen and carbon dioxide
3. ліва доля легені the left lobe of the lung
4. тонкі альвеолярні протоки fine alveolar ducts
5. видаляти сторонні речовини to expel foreign matters
6. збагачувати кров киснем to enrich blood with oxygen
7. видаляти вуглекислий газ to remove carbon dioxide
8. бути вкритим слизом to be coated with mucus
9. переносити кисень to transport oxygen

7.Нервова система

1. діяльність організму bodily activity

2. головний і спинний мозок the brain and spinal column

3. м’яз, що довільно скорочується the voluntary muscles

4. ланцюг нервових вузлів a chain of ganglia

5. умовний рефлекс a conditioned reflex

6. сіра речовина мозку gray matter of the brain

7. подразник stimulus

1. мимовільні і миттєві рухи involuntary and instantaneous movements
2. простий нервовий ланцюг a simple nervous circuit
3. рефлекторна дуга the reflex arc
4. у відповідь на подзразник in response to a stimulus
5. безумовний рефлекс unconditioned reflex
6. зіничний рефлекс the pupillary reflex
7. слізний рефлекс the lacrimal reflex
8. надколінний рефлекс Knee- jerk reflex
9. підошовний рефлекс plantar reflex
10. вроджена діяльность an inborn activity
11. відповідати за рухи to be responsible for movements

 

8. Травна система.

• проходити через глотку в стравохід

to pass through the pharynx to the esophagus

• простягатися від порожнини рота до ануса

to extend from the oral cavity to the anus

• найбільша залоза в тілі людини

the largest gland in the human body

• відігравати важливу роль в обміні речовин

to play a major role in metabolism

• товста та пряма кишки

colon and rectum

• тонкостінна м'язова трубка

a thin-walled muscular tube

· початок травного процесу

the beginning of the digestive process

· механічне та хімічне травлення

the mechanical digestion, the chemical digestion

· виділяти слину

to salivate

· прохід для їжі та повітря the passageway

for food and air

· стравохід та надгортанник

esophagus and epiglottis

· обмін речовин

metabolism

· запобігти потрапляння в трахею

to prevent from entering the trachea

· жування їжі

to masticate food

· зволожити їжу

to moisten the food

· жирні кислоти і гліцерин

fatty acids and glycerol

· розщеплювати складні вуглеводи на цукри

to break down starch into simpler sugars

• здатність регенерації

capacity for regeneration

• довготривале пошкодження

long-term damage

• печінкова артерія

liver failure

• шкідливі речовини

harmful substances

• рубцювання тканин
• scarring tissues
• бути схильним до інфекцій

to be prone to infection

• відновити тканини тіла

to repair the tissues

• складні сполуки

complicated compounds

• травний сік

digestive juices

 

9. Сечовидільна та репродуктивна системи

• сечовід та сечовипускальний канал

the ureter and urithra

· нирки та сечовий міхур

the kidneys and the urinary bladder

· ниркова миска

renal pelvis

· продукти відходів життєдіяльності

waste products

· накопичуватися в крові

to accumulate in the blood

· мозкова речовина нирки

renal medulla

· порушення функцій органів

the organ disfunctions

• шишкоподібна залоза

pineal gland

• надниркова залоза

adrenal gland

· підшлункова залоза

pancreas

• підтримка імунної системи

the maintenance of immune system

• привести до ожиріння та цукрового діабету

to lead to obesity and diabetes mellitus

• регулювати цикл сну та неспання

to regulate the wake-sleep cycle

• призначення гомонів

hormone administration

· виводити сечу

to discharge the urine

• період статевого дозрівання

period of puberty

• запліднити яйцеклітину

to fertilize the egg

10. Здоровий спосіб життя

· органічна сполука

organic compound

· достатня кількость

sufficient quantity

· накопичуватися у жировій тканині

to store in the body's fatty tissue

· необхідні поживні речовини

essential nutrients

· жиророзчинні вітаміни

fat-soluble vitamins

· водорозчинні вітаміни

water-soluble vitamins

· харчові добавки

nutritionalsupplements

· хімічний склад

chemical composition

· застережний захід

precaution

· побічна дія

side effect

· підтримувати тканини тіла

to maintain body tissues

· тривалість життя

life-span

 

Дайте відповіді на наступні питання:

1. Вища медична освіта.

• What faculties are there in ONMU?

 

There are 6 faculties: medical, stomatological, pediatric, pharmcutical, international and faculty for advanced medical students in the ONMU.

 

• Thanks to whose efforts was ONMU founded?

 

ONMU was founded thanks to Pirogov efforts.

 

• Who was the first rector of the Medical Academy?

 

Zabolotniy was the first rector of ONMU

 

• When was the status of national University given to ONMU?

 

The status of national University was given to ONMU in 2000.

 

• When was the Medical Faculty of Novorossiysky University founded?

 

The Medical Faculty of Novorossiysky University was founded in 1920.

 

• How do medical universities admit their students?

 

Medical universities admit their student on the basis of the External Independent Tests

 

• What was N.I. Pirogov famous for?

 

N.I.Pirogov was famous for his surgeon practisi, for his working as an army doctor during wars, and from his work in the Crimea, he is considered to be the father of field surgery; he also originated the intravenous administration of ether as an anesthetic and conducted an important investigation of cholera, based on almost 800 sections, he was the first who used plaster and originated a way to amputate membrums.

 

 

• What important investigation did N.I. Pirogov conduct?

 

He conducted an important investigation of cholera, based on almost 800 sections

 

• Why is Pirogov considered to be the founder of field surgery?

 

From his work in the Crimea, he is considered to be the father of field surgery.

 

 

2.Система охорони здоров”я.

· When was the WHO founded?

 

The WHO was founded on the 7^th of april 1948.

 

· What are the current priorities of the WHO?

 

Its current priorities include communicable diseases, in particular, HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis; the elimination of the effects of non-communicable diseases; sexual and reproductive health, development, and aging; nutrition, food security and healthy eating; occupational health; substance abuse.

 

• What are the ambulances equipped with?

The ambulances are equipped with the first-aid kits, artificial respiration apparatus, splints, thermometrs, tonometrs, cardiograph; they are also radio equipped.

 

• What medical things does the first-aid kit contain?

 

The first-aid kit contains such medical hings as ampoules, boxes, vials with different drugs and tubes with liniment; alcohol, cotton wadding, disposable syringes for IV and IM injections; antiseptics, brilliant green, iodine, adhesive plasters to clean and close wounds; bandage and tourniquet to stop bleeding; inhalers for people suffering from respiratory diseases; enema, probe, hot water bottle for those who have troubles with the gastrointestinal tract; masks and gloves for the first-aid doctors for their personal protection

 

• What drugs are there in the first-aid kit?

 

Among medicines there are pain-killers, tonics, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory remedies, emetics and anti-emetics, antipyretics, sedatives and hypnotics, laxatives and suppositories in the first-aid kit. It may contain even narcotic medicines to relieve pain in severe cases.

 

3. Система медичних закладів

• What medical institutions do you know?

 

There are hospitals, polycliniks, chemist shops, medical universities and so on.

 

• What specialists work at the polyclinic?

 

There are a lot of specialists working at the polyclinic: therapeutists, neurologists, dermatologists, urologists, ophthalmologists, ENT-doctors, traumatologists, endocrinologists, surgeons, etc.

 

• What helps the physician to make a correct diagnoses?

 

The proper examination of the patient with known aetiology help the physican to make a correct diagnoses.

 

• What procedures does a doctor carry on during medical examination?

 

A number of different procedures is used to establish a diagnosis: history-taking; physical examination, which includes visual examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation; laboratory studies, consisting of urinalysis, blood, sputum and other analyses; instrumental studies, for example, taking electrocardiograms or cystoscopy, X-ray examination and others.

 

• What are the duties of the nurse?

 

The nurse on duty takes the patients' temperature, gives them intramuscular and intravenous injections or sets a dropper if administered before, takes stomach juice for analysis. Besides, she leads the patients to different procedures such as gastroscopy or ultrasound of the abdominal cavity organs that are usually carried out on an empty stomach. The nurse also gives all the prescribed remedies in the doses indicated by the ward doctors.

 

• What is usually written in a patient’s case history?

 

Their names, age, place of work, occupation, address and the initial diagnosis made by a doctor at the polyclinic are usually written in a patient’s case history.

 

• What is it necessary to know to make a correct diagnosis?

 

It is necessary to determine aetiology, i.e. the causes of the disease. The doctor must know well the pathogenesis of any disease, i.e. the way and mechanism of its development, as well as the symptoms by which it can be revealed.

 

· What kind of procedures are used to establish a diagnosis?

 

A number of different procedures is used to establish a diagnosis: history-taking; physical examination, which includes visual examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation; laboratory studies, consisting of urinalysis, blood, sputum and other analyses; instrumental studies, for example, taking electrocardiograms or cystoscopy, X-ray examination and others.

 

· What is the difference between the objective and subjective symptoms?

 

Objective symptoms, for example, haemorrhage or vomiting, are determined by objective study, while others, such as headache or dizziness are subjective, since they are evident only to the patient.

 

· Why are laboratory analyses important?

 

Laboratory analyses are important because it helps to make a correct diagnosis. Blood analysis revealing leukocytosis immediately indicates the presence of inflammation in the body. Urinalyses help to reveal the presence of urinary tract infections such as cystitis, nephritis or pyelonephritis.

 

· What does X-ray help to reveal?

·

X-ray usually shows the borders and structure of the internal organs, fractures and fissures, accumulation of liquid in the lungs, etc.

 

· What are the kinds of chemist's shops?

 

There are different types of chemist’s: municipal, public, private.

 

· What does one buy at the chemist’s and prescription department?

 

At the chemist's department a person buys drugs ready to use, different things for medical care and medical herbs. Poisonous, drastic, narcotic and psychotropic drugs are sold by prescription only at the prescription department.

 

· Why are some drugs sold by a prescription only?

 

These drugs are potent and can be dangerous if taken in an overdose. Therefore, their use is strictly controlled.

 

4. Мікробіологія

• What is a cell?

 

The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living organisms.

 

· What does the human cell consist of?

 

It consists of membrane, the cytoplasm and the nucleus, there are also can be rhibosoms, lozosoms, centriolis, mithochondrii and so on.

 

· What is the main function of the cell?

 

There are a wide variety of cells so their functions are not simple, some cells functions are the production of complex substances, such as a hormone or an enzyme, nerve cells generate and conduct electrical impulses, allowing communication between the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the rest of the body, muscle cells contract, allowing movement and so on.

 

• What organisms does microbiologystudy?

 

Microbiology is the scientific study of microscopic organisms, either unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells) including protozoans, yeasts, algae, molds, microscopic fungi, bacteria, and viruses.

 

• What is microbiology concerned with?

 

Microbiology is concerned with the structure, function, and classification of organisms and with ways of controlling and using their activities.

 

• What sub-disciplines does microbiology encompass?

 

Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology, parasitology, and bacteriology.

 

• What groups may all the existing microorganisms be divided into?

 

All the existing microorganisms can be divided into two main groups – aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic microorganisms must have atmospheric free oxygen for their life and growth. However one knows that free oxygen is not favourable for the development of anaerobic microorganisms.

 

· When do bacteria grow and multiple extremely rapidly?

 

Under optimal conditions, bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly, and bacterial population can double as quickly as every 9.8 minutes

 

· What science studies bacteria?

 

Microbiology is the scientific study of bacteria.

 

• What is Alexander Fleming famous for?

 

Sir Alexander Fleming was a Scottish bacteriologist and Nobel Prize winner, best known for his discovery of penicillin

 

5. Анатомія людини.

· What are the principal parts of the human body?

 

The principal parts of the human body are the head, the trunk, and limbs (extremities).

 

· What are the principal organs in the chest?

 

The principal organs in the chest are the lungs, the heart and the esophagus (gullet).

 

· What organs does the abdomen consist of?

 

The lower part of the trunk called abdomen consists of the stomach, the liver, the spleen, the intestines, the kidneys, the gallbladder and the bladder.

 

· What organs does the face include?

 

The face includes the forehead, the eyes, nose, the mouth, the cheeks, the ears and the chin.

 

· What does the upper extremity consist of?

 

The upper extremity is connected with the chest by the shoulder consists of the upper arm, the forearm, the elbow, the wrist and the hand. We have 5 fingers on each hand. A short finger set apart from the other is called the thumb.

 

· What does the lover extremity consist of?

 

The lower extremity called the leg consists of the hip (thigh), the knee, the calf, the ankle and the foot. The foot is composed of the toes, the heel, the sole and the arch.

 

· What supports the soft parts and protects the organs from injury?

 

The framework of bones called the skeleton supports the soft parts and protects the organs from injury

 

· What are the main systems of the body?

 

The main systems of the body are the skeletal system, the muscular system, the nervous system, the circulatory system, the digestive system, the respiratory system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the reproductive systems.

 

· What is the function of the skeletal system?

 

The chief function of the skeletal system is structural.

 

· Why are bones important?

 

Bones are important in five ways. First, bones are the main support for the body; another function of skeleton is movement. Third, bones protect the organs beneath them. Fourth, yellow bone marrow stores calcium and fat. Finally, bones are the location where blood cells are produced by the cells of the red bone marrow

 

· What is the function of the skull?

 

The skull protects the brain.

 

· What parts can the skeleton be divided into?

 

The skeleton can be divided into three basic parts: skull, axial skeleton, and appendicular skeleton.

 

· What is the skeleton constructed of?

 

The skeleton is constructed of bones

 

· Why do adults have fewer bones then newborn babies?

 

There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, newborn babies have over 270 bones some of which fuse together.

 

· Who was the founder of the modern science of anatomy?

 

Andreas Vesalius was the founder of the modern science of anatomy

 

· What are the greatest discoveries of Vesalius?

 

He determined that there were no opening in the septum between the left and the right heart chambers. It was a great discovery

 

· What is Andreas Vesalius famous for?

 

Vesalius did much to establish new and exact anatomical terms. He studied the structure of the inner organs of the human body taking into consideration their functions. Vesalius was the first scientist to give a proper description of the human skeleton. He also determined that neither the right nor the left ventricles of the heart were connected. He determined that there were no opening in the septum between the left and the right heart chambers

 

 

5.Серцево-судинна та респіраторна системи

· Where is the heart located?

It is located on the diaphragm between the lower borders of the lungs, occupying the middle of the mediastinum.

 

· What does each half of the heart consist of?

Each half consists of an upper chamber, called an atrium, and a larger lower chamber, called a ventricle

· What is the function of the right atrium?

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the entire body via 2 large veins called the venae cavae. This blood is transferred to the right ventricle and pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery to be oxygenated and to lose carbon dioxide

 

· What is the function of the left atrium?

The left atrium of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs (via the pulmonary veins); this blood is transferred to the left ventricle and then pumped to all tissues in the body.

· What is systole?

Each cardiac cycle consists of three phases: physiologists have called the first phase of short contraction of both atria —the atrial systole. They have called the second phase of a more prolonged contraction of both ventricles — the ventricular systole

 

· What is diastole?

The period of rest of the cardiac muscle is called the diastole

· What is the cardiac cycle composed of?

It composed of systole and diastole.

· What does the rate of heart beat depends on?

The rate of heart contractions is regulated by two groups of nerve fibers. It varies in different persons and at different age.

 

· How many beats per min does the heart make?

Physiologists have determined that in the adult the heart makes from 60 to 72 beats per minute

• What is blood?

 

Blood is a reddish bodily fluid that is pumped by the heart through the arteries and veins

 

• What is blood composed of?

 

It is composed of blood cells floating in blood plasma

 

· What are the functions of red blood cells?

 

The primary function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body.

 

· What are the functions of white blood cells?

 

White blood cells (WBCs), or leukocytes, are a part of the immune system and help human bodies fight infection

 

· What are thrombocytes responsible for?

 

Thrombocytes, also called platelets, are responsible for blood clotting (coagulation)

 

· What is blood plasma?

 

Plasma is a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium.

 

• How many blood groups do you know? Name them.

 

There are 4 blood groups: A, B, AB, O (ABO system). They can be Rh+ or Rh-.

 

• What may happen when blood groups between the donor blood and the recipient are not compatible?

 

If they are not compatible, the red blood cells from the donated blood will clump or agglutinate.

 

• What are the differences in human blood due to?

 

The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are located in the blood plasma. Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.

 

 

• What are the two main ways to classify blood groups?

 

There are ABO and Rh systems.

• What are the main parts of the respiratory system?

 

There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration.

 

• What is the function of the respiratory system?

 

The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body’s cells by removing carbon dioxide.

 

• What process takes place in the lungs?

 

Once oxygen enters the lungs, it's sent to the rest of the body's organs and tissues through a network of blood vessels

 

• Why is the left lung smaller than the right one?

The left lung is smaller than the right one due to location of heart near it.

• What is the respiratory system responsible for?

 

The respiratory system is responsible for supplying our body with oxygen

 

• What is the function of the nose?

 

We breathe oxygen through the mouth or nose, which warm up the gas and moisten it before it enters the rest of the body

 

• How do people expel foreign matters from the respiratory tract?

 

This foreign matter is expelled from the body through swallowing, coughing or sneezing.

 

• What do cilia do?

 

Cilia, which are very fine hairs, grow in the larynx, trachea and bronchi. These hairs are coated with mucus that captures any germs and pollutants that are in the air we breathe before it enters the lungs.

 

• What is hemoglobin?

Hemoglobin is an important transport molecule found in red blood cells that carries almost 99% of the oxygen in the blood.

 

• What is Sechenov famous for?

I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) was a prominent Russian scientist, the founder of Russian physiology and scientific psychology. 106 scientific works were written by him. I. M. Sechenov isolated the blood gases and found out that most of the blood gases were combined with erythrocytes. I. M. Sechenov investigated the process of absorption of carbon dioxide by the solutions of salts

 

 

7.Нервова система

· What is the main function of the nervous system?

 

Nervous system is the vast network of cells specialized to carry information (in the form of nerve impulses) to and from all parts of the body in order to bring about bodily activity.

 

· What is the central nervous system formed by?

 

The brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system

· How are nerve cells called?

 

Nerve cells are called neurons

 

· What works in balance with sympathetic nervous system?

 

The system works in balance with the sympathetic nervous system, the actions of which it frequently opposes.

 

· What is the brain?

 

The brain (cerebrum) is the enlarged and highly developed mass of nervous tissue that forms the upper end of the central nervous system

 

· What parts does the brain comprise?

It consists of grey matter or nerve cells on the surface, and white matter or nerve fibers in the center.

· What are the parts of the brain?

 

· What processes does CNS control?

Central nervous system controls all movements of voluntary muscles – muscles of the head, limbs and trunk. The brain is the special seat of all the special senses – sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. The brain is the seat of all the higher mental powers – reasoning, will power, consciousness, memory, emotions, etc. The brain also controls the vital functions of the respiration and circulation, the controlling centers being located in the medulla.

 

• In what cases does a reflex occur?

 

In biology, a reflex is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus caused by a simple nervous circuit that involves a nerve impulse passing from a sensory nerve cell to a muscle or gland without reaching the level of consciousness. Scientific use of the term "reflex" refers to a behavior that is mediated via the reflex arc.

 

• What does the reflex arc consist of?

The reflex arc, as an anatomical pathway of a reflex, consisting of an afferent (sensory) and an efferent(secreto-motor) nerve.

 

• Who was the first to introduce the term”reflex’?

 

The word “reflex” (from Latin reflex, “reflection”) was introduced into Biology by a 19^th-centure English neurologist, Marshall Hall. By reflex, Hall meant the automatic response of a muscle or several muscles to a stimulus that excites an afferent nerve.

 

• What reflexes do you know?

 

There are a lot of reflexes, unconditioned (unlearned) reflexes, such as patellar, plantar, pupillary, rooting reflexes and many others, but the simplest ones include swallowing, salivation, sweating, blinking, scratching, sucking (in infants), and others.

 

• What is Pavlov famous for?

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (26 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. Pavlov investigated the gastric function of dogs, and later children. Pavlov extended the definitions of the four temperament types under study at the time: phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, and melancholic.

 

 

8. Травна та ендокринна системи

• What is the alimentary tract?

 

The alimentary tract is a musculomembraneous canal about 8½ metres in length. It extends from the oral cavity to the anus

 

• What does the alimentary tract consist of?

 

It consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine

 

• What are the functions of the alimentary tract?

 

 

• What is the stomach?

 

The stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated portion of the alimentary canal

 

• What is the function of the large intestine?

 

Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter, and then to pass useless waste material from the body.

 

• What does the small intestine consists of?

 

The small intestine is composed of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum

 

• What is the function of the gallbladder?

 

The gallbladder is a hollow sac lying on the lower surface of the liver, where bile is stored, before it is released into the small intestine.

 

• When does the digestive process begin?

 

When you smell or see food, you start to salivate, thus beginning the digestive process.

 

• What processes occur during digestion?

 

During digestion two main processes occur at the same time: Mechanical Digestion and Chemical Digestion

• What nutrients come from food during absorption?

 

There are such nutrients as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.

 

• What is mastication?

 

It’s a process when saliva moistens the food while the teeth chew it up and make it easier to swallow.

 

• What is the role of saliva in mastication?

 

Saliva moistens the food while the teeth chew it up and make it easier to swallow.

 

• How does the process of swallowing occur?

 

Swallowing your food happens when the muscles in your tongue and mouth move the food into your pharynx.

 

• What nutrients does the food contain?

 

There are such nutrients as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.

 

• What does liver consist of?

 

The liver is a reddish brown organ consisting of four lobes of unequal size and shape

 

• What functions does liver have?

 

The liver has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion, vitamin storage, etc. But the liver's main function is filtering the blood which comes from the digestive tract, before passing it to the rest of the body.

 

• Why is liver prone to infections?

 

Because the liver performs so many vital functions, it is prone to disease.

 

• Why is liver considered to be vital for survival?

 

The liver supports almost every organ in the body and is necessary for survival

 

• What incredible capacity does liver have?

 

The liver has an incredible capacity for regeneration of dead or damaged tissues; it is capable of growing very quickly to restore its normal size and function

 

• What are the main functions of the food substances?

 

Substances which can serve as food for the body are those which it can use either as (i) fuel for combustion, (2) building material for the repair and growth of the tissues, and (3) regulators of body activity

 

• What is the role of hormones?

 

It is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. They affect many different processes in the body including growth and development, metabolism, sexual function, behavior, reproduction, mood

 

• What does the endocrine system serve for?

 

The endocrine system serves to regulate a large number of activities.

 

• What glands does the endocrine system include?

 

The endocrine system includes endocrine glands are the pituitary (hypophysis), pineal, thymus, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas.

 

• Where are the hormones produced?

 

Endocrine glands, which are special groups of cells, make hormones

 

• What are the activities of the endocrine glands regulated by?

 

The activities of the endocrine glands are regulated by the pituitary gland, which is often called the “master gland” because it makes hormones that control other endocrine glands.

 

• What are the major endocrine glands?

The major endocrine glands are the pituitary (hypophysis), pineal, thymus, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas.

 

 

• How may the disturbance of hormone quantity influence the organism?

 

Hormones are so powerful that it takes only a tiny amount to cause big changes in cells or even in the whole body

• How can the deficiency of any hormone be cured?

 

The deficiency of any hormone leads to a particular disease, which can be cured by administration of that hormone

 

9. Сечовидільна та репродуктивна системи

What is urinary system?

What does the urinary system consist of?

What are the function of the urinary system?

What form do the kidneys have?

What is the function of nephrons?

Where is the urine stored before it is discharged from the body?

What is the function of the urinary bladder?

What part of the urinary bladder takes part in the process of urination?

 

What is a reproductive system?

What hormones does hypothalamus produce?

When does fertilization occur?

What is zygote?

10. Здоровий спосіб життя

What vitamins can be synthesized in the body?

How are vitamins classified?

How many vitamins are universally recognized?

What functions do vitamins have?

What can high doses of certain vitamins cause?

 

Which minerals play a significant role in human beings?

What is zinc responsible for?

What does iron do in the body?

What is the ideal source of vitamins and minerals?

In which case do nutritional supplements work best?

What are basic materials for the body growth?

What substances are used as body builders?

What substances are used as fuel foods?

What substances are used as regulators of body activity

 

Поясніть наступні терміни у 5ти реченнях:

1. Вища медична освіта.

• Медичний університет

Students can get higher medical education in Ukraine at institutions called medical universities, which are separate from traditional universities. Ukrainian students do not need any preliminary higher education to enter a medical university. Medical universities admit their students on the basis of the results of the External Independent Testing. The course of studies lasts 6 years. For two years medical students learn so-called pre-clinical subjects After their third year students have a practical training, during which they work as nurses. After the fourth they work as doctors’ assistants. And after the 6^th year of studies they work as interns at a large hospital for two years. There are a lot of specialities, so a lot of faculties. F.ex. ONMU has six faculties (medical, stomatological, pediatric, pharmaceutical, international, faculty of advanced medical studies). Odessa National Medical University is one of the biggest higher medical universities, a member of European and International Association of Universities, the leader of reformation of medical education in the country. In 1920 the Medical Academy was organized in Odessa on the Basis of the Medical Faculty of Novorossiysky University. In the 1921 the Medical Academy was reformed into the Medical Institute. Status of the University was given to the Institute by the decree given the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine on August 29, 1994.

 

• Інтернатура

Internship is the last stage of medical education in Ukraine. It starts after the 6^th year of study t a medical universities. During this stage internus work at hospitals for 2 or 3 years depending on the field of their specialization. Internus work under supervision of experienced doctors. They warn how to examine patients, make diagnoses and administer treatment.

 

2.Система охорони здоров”я

• ВООЗ

World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the Unated Nations. WHO was established on the 7^th of april 1948. In 2013 WHO has 194 member states. WHO is concerned with international public health.One of the main services carried out by WHO is the service of epidemic warnings.

• Швидка медична допомога

Emergency medical service is a special medical service that provides out-of-hospital medical care and transportation of patients with illness and injures to hospitals. Calls are made to First Aid Station. All ambulances are well-equipped with the first aids kits that contain ampoles, boxes, vials with drugs, tubes with liniment, alcohol, hot water bottle and so on. There are also medecines: pain-killers, tonics, antibiotics, emetics, sedatives. The ambulance also carry artificial respiration apparatus, sets of splints, thermometrs, tonometrs and they are radio equipped. They consist of an ambulance doctor, medical assistant and non-registered nurse. To call in n ambulance its necessary to dial up 103.

 

3.Система медичних закладів

• Лікарня

The hospital is one of the medical institution where patients are given help due to their illness. When patients are admitted to the hospital first of all they are received by a nurse on duty at the reception ward. Those patients who are to be hospitalized have already received the direction from the polyclinic. The nurse on duty fills in patients' case histories in which she writes down their names, age, place of work, occupation, address and the initial diagnosis made by a doctor at the polyclinic. Then a doctor on duty examines the hospitalized patients and gives his instructions what department and wards the patients are to be admitted to. At about nine o'clock in the morning the doctors begin the daily rounds of the wards during which they examine all the patients. After the medical examination the doctors administer the patients different procedures. All the doctors always treat the patients with great attention and care and such a hearty attitude of the doctors to the patients helps much in their recovery.

 

• Аптека

Chemist’s shop is an institution of health service. It supplies the population with medicines and medical things. There are different types of chemists: municipal, publics, private. Each chemist’s shop has a chemist’s department and a prescription one. At the chemist’s department a person can buy drugs ready to use, different things for medical care and medical herbs. Poisonous, drastic, narcotic and pshytropic drugs are sold by prescription only at the prescription department. In GB all the drugs are legally divided into 3 groups: General Sale List, pharmacy medicines (without prescription but under control) and prescription only medicines.

• Фізичний огляд

Examination of the patient is a way to make a correct diagnosis and to determine its aetiology. Physical examination is the first objective stage in examination of a patient. It should be carried out in a large and warm consulting room with day light. The schema of it includes 3 stages: general examination, when the patient properly examined from head to toes; local, when the doctor examines the patient’s head, eyes, nose, etc to estimate the functional state and examination of the systems which include the study of the systems by palpation and percussion or auscultating

• Симптом

Symptom is a display of a disease. There are a lot of symptoms, which is very important to know for determining a disease f.ex. breathlessness, edema, cough, chill, vomiting, fever, haemorrhage, headache, rash, swelling and others. Most symptoms cannot indicate certain deseas due to a wide variety of diseases with the same aetiology. Some of these symptoms are objective, for example, haemorrhage or vomiting, because they are determined by objective study. While others, such as headache or dizziness are subjective, since they are evident only to the patient.

 

 

4. Цитологія та мікробіологія

• Клітина

The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living organisms. The study of cells is called cell biology. Human cells have a membrane that holds the contents together. Within the cell membrane are two major compartments, the cytoplasm and the nucleus. There are also chromosomes, which are the cell's genetic material and nucleolus, which produces ribosomes; Golgi apparatus; the endoplasmic reticulum, which transports materials within the cell; mitochondria, which generates energy for the cell's activities; lysosomes, which contains enzymes that can break down particles entering the cell and centrioles, which participates in cell division. The body is composed of many different types of cells, each with its own structure and function. Some cells, especially glandular cells, have as their primary function the production of complex substances, such as a hormone or an enzyme, others have primary functions that are not related to the production of substances—for example, nerve cells generate and conduct electrical impulses and so on.

 

• Мікробіологія

Microbiology is the scientific study of microscopic organisms, either unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology, parasitology, and bacteriology. Its foundations were established in the later 19th century, with the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. The branches of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences Medical microbiology related to applied sciences is a branch of medicine concerned with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. A medical microbiologiststudies the characteristics of pathogens, their modes of transmission, mechanisms of infection and growth.

 

• Мікроорганізми

A microorganism (from the Greek: "small" and "organism") or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be a single cell or multicellular organism. Most bacterial species are either spherical, called cocci (from Greek kokkos, grain, seed) or rod -shaped, called bacilli. The growing organism increases in size up to a certain limit and in due time divides. The process of division depends on the conditions of the environment If bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms, they are classed as pathogens

Other bacteria are the essential part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or mucous membrane without causing any disease at all. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology.

 

5. Анатомія людини.

• Будова тіла людини

The building of the human body is a what all of us consist of. The principal parts of it are the head, the trunk, and limbs (extremities). The head consists of 2 parts: the skull contains the brain the face including the forehead, the eyes, nose, the mouth, the cheeks, the ears and the chin. The upper part of the trunk is the chest. The head is connected with the trunk by the neck. The waist is the narrow middle part of the body above the hips. The surface of the body from the neck to the buttocks is called the back. The upper extremity is connected with the chest by the shoulder consists of the upper arm, the forearm, the elbow, the wrist and the hand. The lower extremity called the leg consists of the hip (thigh), the knee, the calf, the ankle and the foot. The framework of bones called the skeleton supports the soft parts and protects the organs from injury. The bones are covered with muscles. The body is covered with the skin.

• Голова

The head is the one of 3 principal parts of the human body. The head consists of 2 parts: the skull contains the brain and the face including the forehead, the eyes, nose, the mouth, the cheeks, the ears and the chin.

Each eye has the eyelids and the eyelashes, there are the eyebrows over our eyes. The eyes serve as the organ of sight. The nose is the organ of smell through which we breathe.The ear includes 3 principal parts: the external ear, the middle ear and the internal ear. The mouth has 2 lips: the upper and the lower lip. The tongue which is the organ of taste, teeth and hard and soft palates are located in the mouth. The head is connected with the trunk by the neck.

• Системи організму

System of the body is a group of organs that work together to perform a certain task. A group of systems composes an organism. There are nine main systems of the body: the skeletal, the muscular, the nervous, the circulatory, the digestive, the respiratory, the urinary, the endocrine and the reproductive systems.

The skeletal system consists of the bones of the body and ligaments and cartilages, which join them. The chief function of the skeletal system is structural. The muscular system consists of the skeletal muscles, the main function of this system is to move us about. The nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, nerves, ganglia and receptors. The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels and the blood. The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and a number of associated glands. The respiratory system consists of the lungs, the air passages leading to them and associated structures. Its main function is to convey oxygen to the lungs and to remove carbon dioxide.The urinary system consists of two kidneys, which produce urine and other wastes from the blood: the two ureters, which convey the urine away from the kidneys; the urinary bladder, where the urine is stored until it is discharged; and the urethra through which the urine is discharged. The endocrine system consists of a number of glands throughout the body which produce regulatory substances called hormones. And the reproductive system serves for reproduction of human life.

 

• Скелет

The skeleton is constructed of bones. It can be divided into three basic parts: skull, axial skeleton, and appendicular skeleton. The bones of the skull consist of cranial and facial parts. The axial skeleton is comprised of the bones that support the trunk The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the arms and legs, along with the bones that attach them to the axial skeleton. The bones of the skeleton are connected together by joints, cartilages, ligaments and tendons. The biggest bone in the body is the femur in the upper leg, and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear. The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed

And in an adult, the skeleton comprises around 14% of the total body weight, and half of this weight is water.

 

 

6. Серцево-судинна та респіраторна системи

· Серце

Heart is a muscular pump in the centre of the chest located on the diaphragm between the lower borders of the lungs occupating the middle of the mediastinum. The heart consists of pericardium, myocardium and endocardium. The septum divides it into right and left halves. Each half consists of an atrium and a ventricle. The heart pumps the blood through the arteries to all parts of the body.

· Кров

Blood is a reddish bodily fluid that is pumped by the heart through the arteries and veins. Its composed of blood cells floating in the plasma. They are: white cells, red cells and platelets. Plasma is a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium. The two main ways to classify blood groups are the ABO (A, B, AB, O) system and the Rh (Rhesus positive +, Rhesus negative -) system. The function of the blood is to deliver necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the body cells and transport metabolism waste products away from the cells.

· Групи крові

Blood groups were opened in 1901 by Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner. The two main ways to classify blood groups are the ABO (A, B, AB, O) system and the Rh (Rhesus positive +, Rhesus negative -) system. Together, they make up the eight main blood groups. The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are located in the blood plasma The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.

• Переливання крові

Blood transfusion is a process of transferring blood from one organism to another. For a blood transfusion to be successful, ABO and Rh blood groups must be compatible between the donor blood and the recipient. If they are not, the red blood cells from the donated blood will limp or agglutinate. The transfusion will work if a person who is going to receive blood has a blood group that does not have any antigens against the donor blood’s antigens. Transfusion can also spread diseases.

• Серцево-судинна система

The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels and the blood. The heart is the muscular pump in the centre of the chest. The heart consists of pericardium, myocardium and endocardium. The septum divides it into right and left halves. Each half consists of an atrium and a ventricle. Blood is a reddish bodily fluid that is pumped by the heart throug