Студопедия — Cooperation during the End of the Cold War and in the Post-Cold War Period
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Cooperation during the End of the Cold War and in the Post-Cold War Period






As shown above, international cooperation concerning the Arctic was limited and most of the agreements concerning environmental protection were rather global than specifically Arctic. The Arctic served as a front between the blocs and the Arctic waters symbolized the naval competition between the USA and the Soviet Union (Heininen, Jalonen, Käkönen 1995: 29).

The whole, however, changed by the end of the 1980s, when former Secretary General of the Soviet Union Michail Gorbachev held his historical speech in Murmansk in 1987 who emphasized peaceful cooperation and arms control in the Arctic. Together with the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, the “Arctic boom” began and spawned many new agreements and structures of international cooperation but also of regional and non-governmental cooperation in the Arctic.

Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy - Governmental cooperation in the Arctic concerning the environment in the early 1990s was initialized by Finland, which, motivated by the Murmansk speech, invited the eight Arctic states to find a way of protecting the fragile Arctic environment. In 1991 the Arctic Environmental Strategy (AEPS) was adopted and signed by all Arctic states and the goals were presented in the Rovaniemi Declaration 1991, including the establishment of four working groups, assessing the current state of the Arctic environment, evaluating and protecting it (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response, Protection of Arctic Marine Environment). This was also to be achieved with the inclusion of indigenous groups as observers.

Arctic Council - Based on the initiative of former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in 1996 the Arctic Council was established, to implement already existing international agreements and to ensure environmental protection in the Arctic. Therefore, the working groups of the AEPS were included in the Arctic Council, as well as 6 indigenous Arctic organizations. Furthermore, sustainable development was included in the Arctic Council (Working Group on Sustainable Development) and it was ensured that military aspects will not be covered by the Arctic Council. Since 2006, also the working group Arctic Contaminants Action Programme (ACAP) is part of the Arctic Council. Furthermore, the Arctic Council is open for observers such as non-Arctic states, non-governmental organizations or inter-parliamentary and inter-governmental organizations. Although the Arctic Council is a legally non-binding body, it is morally and ethically of utter importance for Arctic cooperation (Heininen, undated: 202. 203; Arctic Council 1996).

BEAR - But not only international cooperation started after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Also regional organizations started to emerge to improve regional conditions. An important example is the Barents Euro Arctic Reagion (BEAR) founded in 1993. Although somewhat nationally organized, the two councils (the Regional Council and the Regional Committee) aim to promote regional cooperation in the northernmost parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia and include six different regional working groups, enabling indigenous cooperation as well as cooperation in the sectors environment, communication, culture, education and information technologies (BEAC, undated[3]). Heininen points out that military and security issues concerning the region are “forgotten” due to their high sensitivity (Heininen, undated: 205).

Northern Dimension - Due to the new open structures in the 1990s, the European Union also based on an initiative by Finland has established its Northern Dimension in 2000. The Northern Dimension aims at ensuring sustainable development in Europe’s north and the well-being of northern inhabitants. Furthermore, the Northern Dimension emphasizes the vulnerability of the northern environment, also based on pollution caused by the military. It also fosters cooperation between northern states in the field of natural resources in order to avoid possible conflicts and civil protection The Northern Dimension, however, does not merely include nation states (members are the European Union, Iceland, Norway and the Russian Federation), but also (intergovernmental) organizations such as the BEAC, Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS), the Arctic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers (NCM) as well as the biggest financial operators in the northern European region (Northern Dimension 2007[4]). Based on these multiple actors, the Northern Dimension is able to cover many sectors possibly stressing regional and national cooperation.

Northern Forum – Already in 1974 several regional governments from regions all over the western part of northern hemisphere sharing the same or similar climatic conditions came together to exchange information for the well-being of their regions in environmentally challenging conditions. The second meeting in 1979 included twenty-two provincial, regional, and municipal governments, however, not including Russian representatives. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, in the third meeting in 1990 also included members from Russian regions and municipalities and the Northern Forum was unofficially founded (official foundation was in 1991) with the perspective of environmental protection, prevention of pollution and clean-up, cooperative resource management, and cooperation in several other sectors (Northern Forum, undated[5]; Heininen, undated: 210).

Indigenous Peoples – Throughout the Circumpolar North indigenous peoples have established their own ways of cooperation. The reason for their cooperation can be found in them being one people in a certain geographical area (i.e. the Saami in northern Scandinavia and Russia) and certainly indigenous peoples as (often) being dominated and colonized peoples (i.e. the World Council of Indigenous Peoples). The cooperation, however, can be found on different levels. For example, the Saami Council as being a regional advisory body for the national governments, represents other sub-regional Saami organizations, such as the Reindeer Association of Norway etc. It is furthermore an non-governmental organization in the United Nations and in the International Labour Organization as well a permanent participant in the Arctic Council (Heininen, undated: 208; Arctic Council 1996).

Indigenous cooperation on all levels is not merely a product of the collapse of the Soviet Union nor environmental concerns. The Saami Council already dates back to 1956, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference to 1977, thus in the Cold War period. The main aim is to improve the situation of indigenous peoples divided by (colonial) national borders.

Environmental Cooperation – Although the concepts of environmental non-governmental organizations are not new, the collapse of the Soviet Union has contributed to a growth in Arctic environmental NGOs. For example, the Bellona Foundation, although already founded in 1986 in Norway, has expanded in the early 1990s and also operates and office in Murmansk. The foundation mainly tackles the problems related to nuclear pollution on the Kola Peninsula and the adjacent countries, but includes the United States as well as the European Union for its purposes (Heininen, undated: 209; Bellona Foundation, undated[6]). Furthermore, in the early 1990s, already existing environmental organizations such as Greenpeace or the World Wildlife Fund have established Arctic subdivisions to mitigate i.e. taiga loss and to monitor ongoing changes in the Arctic. Local and regional organizations and movements cooperate with the environmental organizations (Heininen, undated: 209).

Further Cooperation – the circumpolar academic world and the world of science have evolved in the 1990s. The University of the Arctic being an international academic body or the Northern Research Forum bring together circumpolar knowledge and foster the understanding and cooperation in the Circumpolar North. Heininen points out that regional and local cooperation has already existed in the 1950s, but that it started to become institutionalized after the collapse of the Soviet Union (Heininen, undated: 210).

 







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