SPECIAL USES

However, the problem of aspects and their uses is by no means exhausted. First of all we must now mention the uses of the continuous aspect which do not easily fit into the definition given above. Forms of this aspect are occasionally used with the adverbs always, continually, etc., when the action is meant to be unlimited by time. Here are some typical examples of this use: He was constantly experimenting with new seed. (LINKLATER) Rose is always wanting James to retire. (CARY) The adverbial modifier always shows that Rose's wish is thought of as something constant, not restricted to any particular moment. So the difference between the sentence as it stands and the possible variant, Rose always wants James to retire does not lie in the character of the action. Obviously the peculiar shade of meaning in the original sentence is emphatic; the action is represented as never ceasing and this gives the sentence a stronger emotional colouring than it would have with the form of the common aspect: the lexical meaning of always is reinforced by the emphatic colouring of the continuous aspect. It is quite clear that these are exaggerated statements, where the form of the continuous aspect is used emotionally, to present an

Different Interpretations 81

action as going on and on without interruption, whereas that, in the nature of things, is not possible. Such a use is consistent with the basic meaning of the form and illustrates its possible stylistic applications. We shall have to refer to it to elucidate some moot questions concerning these forms. It is the descriptive value of the continuous aspect forms which makes such a use possible at all.

DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS

The interpretation of the opposition writes — is writing given above is not the only one to be found in works dealing with the English language. We will now consider some different interpretations proposed by various scholars.

O. Jespersen ¹ treated the type is writing as a means of expressing limited duration, that is, in his own words, expressing an action serving as frame to another which is performed within the frame set by that first action. A somewhat similar view has been propounded by Prof. N. Irtenyeva,² who thinks that the basic meaning of the type is writing is that of simultaneity of an action with another action. In assessing these views it must be said that they are plausible for some cases, especially for a complex sentence, in which the type writes is used in the main clause, while the type is writing is used in the subordinate clause, or vice versa. This can only be found when the narration refers to the past time, as in the following example: Bat once she was in the car and Andre was bending over her, tucking her rug about her, her sense of freedom left her. (R. WEST) This use is of course very common. The view propounded by these authors does not fit in with the use of the present is writing, which is never, for aught we know, used in a complex sentence of that structure. In sentences such as What is he doing? He is reading, there is no other action with which the action expressed by the type is writing could be simultaneous or to which it might be a "time frame".³ N. Irtenyeva answers this possible objection by saying that in such cases the action expressed by the is writing type is simultaneous with the act of speech.⁴

¹ See O. Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar, p. 277 ff.

² See H. Ф. Иртеньева, Грамматика английского языка, 1956, стр. 82.

³ The present continuous is occasionally used in sentences containing mention of another action expressed by a verb in the present tense, as in the following examples: As she speaks I am thinking of the founders of the city. (DURRELL) But when yon are dying you suddenly find yourself in funds. (IDEM) My toothbrush is a thing that makes my life unhappy when I'm travelling. (JEROME K. JEROME, quoted by N. Irtenyeva) These are special cases, however. In the first example the forms of the present are used to narrate past actions, and in the other two examples repeated or habitual Actions are meant.

⁴ See H. Ф. Иртеньева, op. cit., p. 83.

82 The Verb: Aspect

However, that completely changes the situation. The act of speech is not mentioned in the speech. Moreover, simultaneity with the act of speech is the definition of the present tense, ¹ and not of the type is writing as such. Besides (and this appears to be very essential) if we take simultaneity with another action to be the basic meaning of the type is writing we cannot account for that descriptive power which this type obviously has in the cases when it is used in connection with such adverbs as always. Thus a view which does not take into account the category of aspect in this matter does not appear to be convincing.

Another view is held by Prof. I. Ivanova. ² She recognises the existence of the aspect category in English, but treats it in a peculiar way. According to Prof. Ivanova, is writing is an aspect form, namely that of the continuous aspect, but writes is not an aspect form at all, because its meaning is vague and cannot be clearly defined. So the author reaches the conclusion that some finite forms of the Modern English verb have the category of aspect, and are in so far "aspect-tense forms", while others have no aspect and are therefore "purely tense forms". Concerning this view it must be said that on the basic point it agrees with the view put forward above: the distinction between the type writes and the type is writing is a distinction of aspect. But Prof. Ivanova denies the existence of the common aspect. This seems rather a difference of wording than one of essence. "No aspect" seems something like another version of "common aspect". And it must be said that the idea of "common aspect" answers the facts better than does the idea of "no aspect". The difficulty of formulating the meaning of the common aspect need not worry us. That is one more case of distinction between a marked and a non-marked member of an opposition. The continuous aspect is marked both in meaning and in form (be + first participle), whereas the common aspect is non-marked both in meaning and in form; no formal characteristic of the common aspect can be given except the negative one: in contradistinction from the continuous aspect, it is not expressed by "be + first participle". Thus the theory of common and continuous aspect may be upheld.³

¹ See below, p. 86 ff.

² See И. П. Иванова, Вид и время в современном английском языке, 1961, стр. 57 сл., 77 сл.

³ When we discuss the meaning of the unmarked member of an opposition we sometimes find it difficult to formulate. This is true, for example, of the common case, as opposed to the genitive, and also of the common aspect as opposed to the continuous, etc. Of course attempts should be made to find an adequate definition of the meaning of unmarked members, but the difficulty should not deter us from stating the existence of the unmarked member, as grammatically opposed to the marked one.

Aspect and Character of the Verb 83

DIFFERENT TERMS

Besides the various theories put forward with reference to the opposition writes — is writing, we must mention various terms that have been proposed to denote its members. H. Sweet used the term "definite tenses" for what we call the continuous aspect. ¹ This term cannot be said to be a happy one, as the word "tense" disguises the fact that we find here a peculiar grammatical category different from that of tense.

Another term which has been used is, "expanded form", or "progressive form". The term "form" cannot be described as satisfactory since it leaves the basic grammatical question open: we might as well speak of the past form, or of the passive form, etc. As to the adjectives modifying the word form, it must be said that expanded merely gives a characteristic of the analytical structure of the form, without indicating its meaning. As to progressive, it does indicate the meaning, but is hardly preferable to the adjective continuous. So we will stick to the term "continuous aspect".