Operations in a Modern Mineral Processing Plant5.2.1 Sampling
Routine sampling and analysis of the raw material being processed are undertaken in order to acquire information necessary for the economic appraisal of ores and concentrates. In addition, modern plants have fully automatic control systems that conduct in-stream analysis of the material as it is being processed and make adjustments at any stage in order to produce the richest possible concentrate at the lowest possible operating cost.
Sampling is the removal from a given lot of material a portion that is representative of the whole yet of convenient size for analysis. It is done either by hand or by machine. Hand sampling is usually expensive, slow, and inaccurate, so that it is generally applied only where the material is not suitable for machine sampling (slimy ore, for example) or where machinery is either not available or too expensive to install.
Many different sampling devices are available, including shovels, pipe samplers, and automatic machine samplers. For these sampling machines to provide an accurate representation of the whole lot, the quantity of a single sample, the total number of samples, and the kind of samples taken are of decisive importance. A number of mathematical sampling models have been devised in order to arrive at the appropriate criteria for sampling 5.2.2 Analysis After one or more samples are taken from an amount of ore passing through a material stream such as a conveyor belt, the samples are reduced to quantities suitable for further analysis. Analytical methods include chemical, mineralogical, and particle size. a) Chemical analysis Even before the 16th century, comprehensive schemes of assaying (measuring the value of) ores were known, using procedures that do not differ materially from those employed in modern times. Although conventional methods of chemical analysis are used today to detect and estimate quantities of elements in ores and minerals, they are slow and not sufficiently accurate, particularly at low concentrations, to be entirely suitable for process control. As a consequence, to achieve greater efficiency, sophisticated analytical instrumentation is being used to an increasing extent.
In emission spectroscopy, an electric discharge is established between a pair of electrodes, one of which is made of the material being analyzed. The electric discharge vaporizes a portion of the sample and excites the elements in the sample to emit characteristic spectra. Detection and measurement of the wavelengths and intensities of the emission spectra reveal the identities and concentrations of the elements in the sample.
In X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, a sample bombarded with X rays gives off fluorescent X-radiation of wavelengths characteristic of its elements. The amount of emitted X-radiation is related to the concentration of individual elements in the sample. The sensitivity and precision of this method are poor for elements of low atomic number (i.e., few protons in the nucleus, such as boron and beryllium), but for slags, ores, sinters, and pellets where the majority of the elements are in the higher atomic number range, as in the case of gold and lead, the method has been generally suitable. b) Mineralogical analysis A successful separation of a valuable mineral from its ore can be determined by heavy-liquid testing, in which a single-sized fraction of a ground ore is suspended in a liquid of high specific gravity. Particles of less density than the liquid remain afloat, while denser particles sink. Several different fractions of particles with the same density (and, hence, similar composition) can be produced, and the valuable mineral components can then be determined by chemical analysis or by microscopic analysis of polished sections.
Coarsely ground minerals can be classified according to size by running them through special sieves or screens, for which various national and international standards have been accepted. One old standard (now obsolete) was the Tyler Series, in which wire screens were identified by mesh size, as measured in wires or openings per inch. Modern standards now classify sieves according to the size of the aperture, as measured in millimetres or micrometres (10-6 metre). Mineral particles smaller than 50 micrometres can be classified by different optical measurement methods, which employ light or laser beams of various frequencies. Exercise30 Insert the most appropriate word from the text. 1. …………… is the removal from a given lot of material a portion that is representative of the whole yet of convenient size for analysis. 2. …………..… sampling is usually expensive, slow, and inaccurate. 3. In …………………… an electric discharge is established between a pair of electrodes, one of which is made of the material being analyzed. 4. A successful separation of a valuable mineral from its ore can be determined by …………………….… testing. 5. The amount of emitted ………….…is related to the concentration of individual elements in the sample. 6. Particles of less ………………….. than the liquid remain afloat, while denser particles sink. 7. Several different fractions of particles with the ………..… density can be produced. 8. The sensitivity and precision of this method are poor for elements of low atomic …………………….. 9. Many different sampling ………………………… are available, including shovels, pipe samplers, and automatic machine samplers. 10. Detection and measurement of the wavelengths and intensities of the emission spectra reveal the identities and concentrations of the ……………….… in the sample. Exercise31 Complete the expressions given below:
Exercise32
Match words with the definitions.
Exercise33 Explain in your own words.
automatic control systems _______________________________________________ measurement methods __________________________________________________ chemical analysis ______________________________________________________ assaying _____________________________________________________________ in-stream analysis _____________________________________________________
Exercise34 Complete the table
5.2.3 Comminution In order to separate the valuable components of an ore from the waste rock, the minerals must be liberated from their interlocked state physically by comminution. As a rule, comminution begins by crushing the ore to below a certain size and finishes by grinding it into powder, the ultimate fineness of which depends on the fineness of dissemination of the desired mineral.
In primitive times, crushers were small, hand-operated pestles and mortars, and grinding was done by millstones turned by men, horses, or waterpower. Today, these processes are carried out in mechanized crushers and mills. Whereas crushing is done mostly under dry conditions, grinding mills can be operated both dry and wet, with wet grinding being predominant.
5.2.4 Crushing
Some ores occur in nature as mixtures of discrete mineral particles, such as gold in gravel beds and streams and diamonds in mines. These mixtures require little or no crushing, since the valuables are recoverable using other techniques (breaking up placer material in log washers, for instance). Most ores, however, are made up of hard, tough rock masses that must be crushed before the valuable minerals can be released.
In order to produce a crushed material suitable for use as mill feed (100 percent of the pieces must be less than 10 to 14 millimetres, or 0.4 to 0.6 inch, in diameter), crushing is done in stages. In the primary stage, the devices used are mostly jaw crushers with openings as wide as two metres. These crush the ore to less than 150 millimetres, which is a suitable size to serve as feed for the secondary crushing stage. In this stage, the ore is crushed in cone crushers to less than 10 to 15 millimetres. This material is the feed for the grinding mill.
In this process stage, the crushed material can be further disintegrated in a cylinder mill, which is a cylindrical container built to varying length-to-diameter ratios, mounted with the axis substantially horizontal, and partially filled with grinding bodies (e.g., flint stones, iron or steel balls) that are caused to tumble, under the influence of gravity, by revolving the container.
A special development is the autogenous or semiautogenous mill. Autogenous mills operate without grinding bodies; instead, the coarser part of the ore simply grinds itself and the smaller fractions. To semiautogenous mills (which have become widespread), 5 to 10 percent grinding bodies (usually metal spheres) are added. Crushing/grinding Yet another development, combining the processes of crushing and grinding, is the roll crusher. This consists essentially of two cylinders that are mounted on horizontal shafts and driven in opposite directions. The cylinders are pressed together under high pressure, so that comminution takes place in the material bed between them. 5.2.6 Concentration
Concentration involves the separation of valuable minerals from the other raw materials received from the grinding mill. In large-scale operations this is accomplished by taking advantage of the different properties of the minerals to be separated. These properties can be colour (optical sorting), density (gravity separation), magnetic or electric (magnetic and electrostatic separation), and physicochemical (flotation separation). Exercise35 Give synonyms and antonyms of the following words: Synonyms Antonyms
valuable high waste separation release suitable small hard essentially dry container concentration begin discrete
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3. valuable
