I. Этические аспекты, связанные с определением статуса эмбриона человека и с возможностью исследовательских манипуляций с эмбрионами
One of the greatest innovations of our time has been the growth of computers. This growth has been accompanied by a developing myth that computers can solve all our problems at the touch of a button. One thing that must always be remembered is that they can only do what man has designed them to do. In recent years the police have increasingly brought computers into use and the Metropolitan Police uses various computer systems. At present the largest system is the Police National Computer, maintained by the Home Office for use by all police forces. This computer gives police forces throughout the country immediate access to selected central records. With the growth of police records manual searches took an increasingly long time often causing embarrassing delays. Now the information is available in seconds. The first index to be placed on computer was the stolen and suspected vehicles index. In the past, checking a stolen vehicle was a laborious process. The patrolling officer would have to stop the car and then radio his station, who in turn would telephone the Information Room at New Scotland Yard and ask for a vehicle check. It was then necessary to search the card index and the whole process from the officer stopping the vehicle to him receiving the result could take 10 minutes or more. Now the check can be done by the Central Command Complex or a Divisional Control Room in seconds, even while the vehicle is still moving. However, a vehicle will only be shown in this index if the owner knows it has been taken and has reported the fact. It was not unknown for a car thief to get away with it by telling a good story. To assist police, the vehicle owners’ list was added. Now if the police officer stops a car which is not known as stolen, and he is still not satisfied, he can, within seconds, obtain the name, address of the real owner — something the thief will not necessarily know. This gives a speedy, nationwide coverage as this example shows. A car was stolen in London and driven towards Wales along the M4. The owner reported the taking of his car shortly before the car reached the Severn Bridge. The car was stopped on the Severn Bridge, checked and found to be stolen and the occupants arrested. Another use of the computer is to list persons convicted for serious offences, also persons wanted or missing and those disqualified from driving. Once an individual is identified as belonging to one of these categories, police officers can obtain information from the Police National Computer which will help them to decide on the most appropriate course of action. A police force can also use this computer for sending urgent messages to other forces throughout the country. The computer also contains fingerprint records. Previously, when a person’s fingerprints were sent to New Scotland Yard a Fingerprint Officer coded the set and then did a manual search to see if the person was already known. Now he just feeds this into the computer which gives a list of responses to the search in seconds. This information is fed to a Videofile computer which retrieves the images of the fingerprints, stored on videotape, for viewing by an Identification Officer on a TV screen. The most recent innovation in identification of fingerprints is the Automatic Fingerprint Recognition System, which is a computerised method of comparing finger marks found at the scene of a crime with known fingerprints. Other operational and administrative computer systems are operated and managed by the Metropolitan Police Department of Computing Services (DCS). Their administrative systems handle day-to-day matters such as calculating the pay of police officers and civil staff, keeping their personal records, maintaining records of the fleet of more than 3,500 vehicles, general storekeeping, financial accounting and compiling the statistics needed by the Service. Indeed, much the same functions as computers in any large organisation. Other systems handle the processing of traffic tickets and penalty notices issued in the MPD area and the allocation of accommodation to police officers. There are other areas where computers assist in the fight against crime. The Criminal Investigation Department has installed HOLMES (Home Office Large Major Enquiry System) to improve the organisation and administration of information, and to provide more efficient retrieval capabilities, during major enquiiy investigations such as outbreaks of public disorder, murders and rapes. There are computers keeping a check on samples sent to the Metropolitan Police Forensic Science Laboratory, other computers provide support to crime detection units. The number of small computers in use in the Force is increasing constantly ranging from support to local information systems on Crime Analysis to Victim Support and Neighbourhood Watch Schemes. These systems are in addition to a programme of installing small computer systems in every Area and Divisional Headquarters to provide local management information and operational support, forming the first stages of Office Automation. Another computer is used by the Metropolitan Police in the control of traffic in central London and areas outside the centre which suffer from traffic congestion. There are over 1,500 sets of traffic lights linked to the computer. The computer controls the timing of the lights automatically, adjusting them to meet the time of day and the anticipated traffic flow. The computer also monitors traffic signals for faults, warning operators when they fail. Should the traffic become affected for any reason the computer becomes aware of this by means of sensors in the road. An alarm then warns the operators who can use any of the 60 TV cameras to find the cause. The operators can manually control the lights and direct traffic away from the area as quickly as possible. Finally, a computer has been installed for Command and Control purposes. With the increasing use by the public of the telephone to contact the police it is obviously important to streamline the means of handling calls and directing police resources. In the first stage of the Command and Control scheme, operators in the Central Command Complex at New Scotland Yard who receive ‘999’ emergency calls enter the details on a VDU[12]. As soon as the operator enters the caller’s location the computer will work out a map reference, display the police subdivision which covers that location and the call-sign of the local police car. When the message is complete, the operator touches a key to pass the message to the appropriate radio operator. The radio operator’s VDU immediately shows a summary of the new message, so that he can decide whether to call up the full message straight away, or whether it is more urgent to continue dealing with some other message he may currently have on full display. The computer will already have sought out from its memory, the nearest available cars which may be instructed to deal with the matter. All Divisional police stations now have a control room, with VDUs connected to the computer network, so that these local stations can also be in instant touch with the Central Command Complex about messages received and resources deployed by any of them. Computers are very much tools of the police. They do not mean that London needs fewer police officers to do the same job more quickly and efficiently. The data contained in computers is only of value and interest to police in the context of their duty to prevent and detect crime.
[1] a tithing - “десятина” (група із десяти сімей). [2] hue and cry - погоня. [3] Lord of the Manor - власник маєтку.
[4] Justices of the Peace - мирові судді. [5] V.I.P.s - very important persons. [6] PhD - Doctor of Philosophy. [7] CID – Criminal Ivestigation Department [8] HQ - Head Quarter. [9] SWI - a district of London (South-West I). [10] Trooping the Colour - урочисте пронесення прапора (на параді). [11] A.A, R.A.C., B.B.C. - Mass Media. [12] VDU - visual display unit. I. Этические аспекты, связанные с определением статуса эмбриона человека и с возможностью исследовательских манипуляций с эмбрионами 1. Одним из ключевых критериев, исходя из которых специалисты-эмбриологи допускают рассматривать эмбрион человека как личность, является информация о том, на каком этапе своего развития эмбрион человека приобретает способность чувствовать. 2. Исследования, при которых эмбрионы человека служат «экспериментальным материалом», для этого культивируются «in vitro» и являются заведомо нежизнеспособными или умерщвляются после использования, согласно императивам биоэтики проводиться не должны. 3. Исследования на эмбрионах человека с целью получения биологического оружия в соответствии с канонами биоэтики категорически запрещены. 4. Существуют биоэтические рекомендации, согласно которым эмбрион человека, развившийся при ЭКО, обладает правом на жизнь поэтому должен быть трансплантирован в матку 5. Исследования и эксперименты с эмбрионами человека могут осуществляться только с согласия родительской пары 6. Работа с живыми эмбрионами человека осуществляется только по заявке, в которой должны быть изложены мотивы и причины планируемой работы (ЭКО для клинических целей или научных исследований) и которая должна быть одобрена экспертами и утверждаться местным комитетом по биоэтике 7. С точки зрения биоэтики, в случае согласия родительской пары, допускается экспериментирование с эмбрионами человека без нарушения их целостности (изучение условий культивирования, закономерностей развития) 8. С точки зрения биоэтики, в случае согласия родительской пары, допускаются инвазивные методы исследования живых эмбрионов человека (биопсия отдельных клеток для преимплантационной диагностики, криоконсервация для последующей ПЭ) 9. С точки зрения биоэтики, допускаются эксперименты с погибшими эмбрионами человека (изучение кариотипа, метаболизма и др.) 10. С позиций современной биоэтики исследование эмбриогенеза млекопитающих не во всех случаях позволяет экстраполировать на человека полученную информацию, что является аргументом в пользу экспериментов на живых эмбрионах человека.
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