Стилістика1. Фонетичні засоби стилістики. Стилістична фонетика, графо-фонеміка, графіка. Phonetic Stylistic Devices and Graphical Means. 1. Onomatopoeia 2. Alliteration 3. Rhyme 4. Rhythm 5. Graphical Means The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense. There is another thing to be taken into account which, in a certain type of communication plays an important role. This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. A word may acquire a desired phonetic effect only in combination with other words. The way a separate word sounds may produce a certain euphonic effect, but this is a matter of individual perception and feeling and therefore subjective. However there exist psychological works on the theory of sound symbolism. They checked the associations, which the tested people have with the definite sounds. Statistics shows that their answers coincide very often. Verier St Woolman, one of the founders of the theory of sound symbolism claimed that a certain sound when pronounced clearly and strong has special meaning and feeling. For example the sound [d], when repeated often may produce an effect of something evil, negative and wicked. The sound of a word, or more exactly the way words sound in combination, often contributes something to the general effect of the message, particularly when the sound effect has been deliberately worked out. This can easily be recognized when analyzing alliterative word combinations or the rhymes in certain stanzas or from more elaborate analysis of sound arrangement. The aesthetiс effect of the text is composed not only with the help of sounds and prosody, but with the help of sounds and prosody together with the meaning. The sound side of the belles-letters work makes a whole with rhythm and meaning and can’t influence the reader separately. To influence aesthetically the sound part of the text should somehow be highlightened. An author can increase an emotional and aesthetic effect of his work through choosing the words, their arrangement and repetitions. Let’s see what phonetic SDs can secure this function. 1. Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc. – splash, bubble, rustle, whistle) by things (machines or tools, etc. - buzz) by people (singing, laughter, yawning, roar, giggle) and animals (moo, bleat, croak - frog). Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy: that is it can be used in transferred meaning – tintinnabulation-the sound of bells There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as thud, bowwow, ding-dong, buzz, bang, ‘cuckoo. These words have different degrees of ‘imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require some imagination to decipher it. e.g. And now there came the chop-chop of wooden hammers. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo writing". Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the following line. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. An example is: And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain" (E. A. Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain. Indirect onomatopoeia is sometimes effectively used by repeating words which themselves are not onomatopoetic but they contribute to the general impact of the utterance: in the poem Boots by R. Kipling soldiers’ tread is shown - We’re foot-slog-slog-slog-sloggin’ over Africa – Foot-foot-foot-foot –sloggin’ over Africa. (Boots – boots – boots – boots – moovi’ up and down again!) Onomatopoeia helps to create the vivid portrayal of the situation described, and the phonemic structure of the word is important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations. 2. Alliteration and assonance Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) or, "Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before" (E. A. Poe). Alliteration is also used to name the repetition of first letters: Apt Alliteration’s artful aid.(Charles Churchill). Alliteration has a long tradition in English poetry as Germanic and Anglo-Saxon poems were organized with its help. (Beowulf) Assonance is the repetition of similar stressed vowels within the line or stanza. “… Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden, I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore… (E. A. Poe)” Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning. However it supplies the utterance with a certain nuance of the meaning [d]. That’s why alliteration is regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author’s idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere which each reader interprets for himself. Alliteration heightens the general aesthetic effect of the utterance when it has connection with sense. Now it’s used only as a subsidiary device. Its role is an expressive one – alliterated words indicate the most important concepts. It’s often used in emotive prose, newspaper headlines, titles, proverbs and sayings: Sense and Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice; safe and sound; part and parcel etc. 3. Rhyme Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative. Thus, the first criterion is the identity of sound. Form this point of view we distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (heart – part, flood-blood). Incomplete rhymes are divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes (ассонансы) and consonant rhymes (консонансы). In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in (advice-compromise). In consonant rhymes, on the contrary, consonants are identical and disparity in vowels, as in (wind-land, grey-grow). The second criterion: morphological characteristics. Compound (broken) rhymes - when one word rhymes with a combination of words; or two or even three words rhyme with a corresponding two or three words, as in "better – forget her". The peculiarity of rhymes of this type is that the combination of words is made to sound like one word - this device will inevitably give a colloquial and sometimes a humorous touch to the utterance. Compound rhyme may be set against what is called eye - rhyme, where the letters and not the sounds are identical, as in love - prove, flood - brood, have - grave. It follows that compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud, eye - rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse. III the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza: couplets – when the last words of 2 successive lines are rhymed – aa; cross rhymes – перекрёстные - abab; framing or ring rhymes – опоясывающие - abba. IV according to their position: e.g. internal rhyme – the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line: “I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.” (Shelley) The rhyme has 2 functions, which are realized simultaneously: disserving (it breaks the line into 2 distinct parts, making the reader to pause) and consolidating (consolidates the ideas expressed in 2 parts). 4. Rhythm Rhythm is the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, more or less regular. As a SD rhythm is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations governed by the standard. It exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It stirs up emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical or symmetrical as in architecture. It’s not only a regular pattern of sounds or movements; it’s also any regular pattern in nature or in life. Rhythm can be perceived only provided that there is some kind of experience in catching regularity of alternating patterns. Rhythm has a great importance not only for music and poetry, but also for prose. In prose rhythm is closely connected with the metre, i.e. different metrical patterns. The rhythm of prose is based on the succession of images, themes and other big elements of the text; repetition, parallel constructions, chiasmus- перекрестный/ реверсированный повтор, similar syntactical patterns. The unit of measure here is not a syllable but a structure, a word-combination, a sequence of phrases, sentences and supra-phrasal units. Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It contributes to the general sense, helps to get the flow of thoughts and humour of the author. In poetry it conveys the mood, emotions and feelings, sharpens the thought of the author and his characters. Rhythm adds specific importance to some ideas and feelings, it helps to create reality in text. It has expressive, symbolic and graphic functions. It can imitate movement, behaviour and even setting. It foregrounds some particular words, thoughts, ideas, feelings, and vice versa obscures others, thus adding a per’spective to the text. 5. Graphical EMs Graphical EMs serve to convey in the written form those emotions which in the oral speech are expressed by intonation and stress, in written form they are shown mostly with the help of punctuation and deliberate change of a spelling of a word. “A detective! I never ‘eard of such a thing! What d’yer come ‘ere for if yer want to be a detective. ‘Ere, yer not big enough, ‘cos yer’d ‘ave to be a pleeceman first before they’d let yer be a detective, and they’d never ‘ave yer as a pleeceman. ” (J.D. Priestley,“ Angel Pavement”) Woman, without her, man is nothing. All types of punctuation can be used to reflect the emphatic intonation of the speaker. Such ‘emphatic’ punctuation is used in many syntactical SDs: aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative) [You’ll just come home, or I’ll …], rhetorical questions, su’spense etc. The changed type (italics, bold type) or spelling multiplication (laaarge) are used to indicate the additional stress on the emphasis word or part of the word. There is no direct connection between the graphical SDs and the intonation they reflect, for their choice is too inadequate for the variety and quality of emotions recurrent in intonation.
2. Стилістична морфологія. Поняття виразного засобу і стилістичного прийому на морфологічному рівні. The main unit of the morphological level is a morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit which can be singled out in a word. There are two types of morphemes: root morphemes and affix ones. Morphology chiefly deals with forms, functions and meanings of affix morphemes.
Affix morphemes in English are subdivided into word-building and form-building morphemes. In the latter case affixation may be: 1) synthetical (boys, lived, comes, going); 2) analytical (has invited, is invited, does not invite); 3) based on the alteration of the root vowel (write-wrote); 4) suppletive (go-went).
There are few language (or paradigmatic) synonyms among English morphemes and only some of them form stylistic oppositions, e.g, he lives – he does live. Come! – Do come! Don’t forget – Don’t you forget. This scarcity of morphological EM which is predetermined by the analytical character of the English language is compensated by a great variety of SD.
Morphological SD as a deliberate shift in the fixed distribution of morphemes can be creted by means of: a) the violation of the usual combinability of morphemes within a word, e.g. the plural of uncountable nouns (sands, waters, times), or the Continuous forms of the verbs of sense perception (to be seeing, to be knowing, to be feeling); b) the violation of the contextual distribution of morphemes, which is called form transposition.
1.1. SD BASED ON THE USE OF NOUNS
The invariant grammatical meaning of the noun, that of substance, is realized through grammatical categories of number, case definiteness/ indefiniteness which can be used for stylistic purposes.
Such SD may be based on a) repeating the same words in a syntactical construction, e.g. women are women, or b) using metaphorically nouns which belong to different lexico-grammatical classes, e.g. He is a devil with the women (S.Barstow).
In the opposition of singular:: plural the latter is a marked member, and, accordingly, the possibilities of its stylistic use are greater. Nevertheless, singular forms can also acquire stylistic meaning, e.g. to shoot dark, to hunt pig. The formant ‘s’ as the marker of the category of possessiveness constantly widens the sphere of its usage and its combinability. It frequently combines with inanimate and abstract nouns, e.g. kitchen’s work, the plan’s failure. Sometimes it refers to a word group or a sentence, e.g. The blonde I had been dancing with’s name was Bemice Crabs or Krebs (J. Salinger). As a result, the opposition N1 of N2:: N2’s N1 loses its stylistic character.
1.2. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ARTICLES
Articles which form the nucleus of the category of definiteness / indefiniteness in modern English may be regarded as analytical formants that might impact to the noun a stylistic coloring.
There are two ways of achieving a stylistic effect through the usage or non-usage of articles:
1) the violation of usual combinability of the definite and indefinite articles with proper names and the nouns denoting unique objects (sun, moon, sky, earth). The indefinite article with proper names might acquire evaluative meaning. While the definite article indicates a temporary or permanent quality of the person in question. Names of unique objects while used with the indefinite article acquire the meaning "one of many”;
2) the transposition of the meaning of an article in context. In this case the objects or phenomena are introduced by the narrator as if they are familiar to the reader. This device is sometimes called in medias res (the beginning from the middle).
1.3. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ADJECTIVES
In contrast with nouns, adjectives have only one grammatical category, that of comparison. The violation of morphemic combinability in adjectives which express different degree of comparison are typical of advertising techniques, e.g. the most Italian car. The meaning of comparison can be also expressed lexically through equonisms, e.g. senior – junior, and adjectives with the –ish suffix, e.g. mannish, womanish, which are occasional words which sound less categoric.
1.4. SD BASED ON THE USE OF PRONOUNS
Being very abstract, pronouns in contrast with nouns and adjectives are rarely used stylistically, which makes their stylistic usage especially expressive.
Pronouns may acquire stylistic value if they denote persons or objects that have not been named or introduced but are still represented as familiar. This device, in media res plunges the reader into the midst of events, making the author’s narrative more intimate (see E. Hemingway’s stories Now I Lay Me and In Another Country).
A particular stylistic effect may be created due to the usage of archaic (thee, thou, thy) or low colloquial forms of pronouns. While archaic forms make the speech sound official, solemn, or poetical, low colloquial forms usually render some speech characteristics. Pronouns can also undergo various contextual transpositions:
1) when we is used instead of I (I → we transposition):
a) Pluralis Auctoris ("editorial we”), when the author speaks on behalf of a certain group, party, or class;
b) Pluralis Majestatis, when we is used as a symbol of royal power;
c) Pluralis Modestial, when we is used as a means of involving the reader or listener into the author’s thoughts. It is typical of oral or written scientific prose;
d) when we is employed to impart to the utterance a jocular unceremonious coloring;
2) I → one transposition which gives an utterance a more general, impersonal character;
3) I → you transposition which frequently occurs in reported speech and some descriptions;
4) I → he/she transposition that takes place when:
a) the speaker tells his/her life story as an onlooker;
b) the speaker addresses himself/herself as an interlocuter;
c) the speaker overstresses his/her relevance;
d) the speaker laughs away what is said about him/her by the others;
5) you → we ("clinical we”) transposition, which conveys a patronizing attitude of the senior superior to the junior/inferior. It can also create a humorous effect.
1.5. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ADVERBS
Adverbs as one of the means of communicating intensity may be:
a) stylistically neutral, typical of both written and oral speech (exceedingly, quite, too, utterly);
b) stylistically marked, typical of oral speech only (awfully, terribly, dreadfully etc.).
The latter are close to intensifying particles.
Formal differentiation of suffix and non-suffix adverbs in Modern English is supported by their stylistic usage. The use of non-suffix adverbs is typical of the oral form of speech. In belles-lettres style they can become SD which impart greater vividness and expressiveness to the personage’s speech. Both types of adverbs may be found in the publicistic style.
1.6. SD BASED ON THE USE OF VERBS
The existing diversity of verb categories, forms and constructions makes this part of speech the richest one as to its stylistic possibilities. The stylistic potential of the verb finds its obvious manifestations in the use of aspect, tense, voice, and mood forms.
Verb aspect forms have a lot of synonyms which allow diverse synonymous substitutions. Present, Past and Future Continuous forms, being more emotional than Indefinite ones, are frequently used instead of the latter to emphasize the emotional tension of the utterance or to impart politeness to it.
The interchange of verb tense forms (past with historic present or present with past or future) in the narrative makes the events, actions and situations described more vivid.
Passive constructions which might have a greater emotional charge than active ones, because of their implicit agent, can make a literary text more expressive.
Impersonality accounts for either expressive or habitual use of passive constructions in those texts (mostly scientific papers) which are characterized by impartiality of judgment and objectiveness. Passive forms are also wide spread in colloquial speech, in the publicistic and official styles.
The category of mood, due to its modality, the expression of the speaker’s attitude to the events and phenomena described, also enjoys a great stylistic potential. While considering the stylistic usage of the imperative mood, it is important to take into account: social factors (age, social status, educational background, relations between the interlocutors) and different attitudinal overtones (categoric, pressing, mild, affectionate, threatening, ironical). These shades of meaning are chiefly rendered by means of intonation, but they can be also stressed by syntax (please, kindly, will you? the use of you to intensify the harshness of tone).
Imperative mood forms in a literary text, especially in its title, are used to create an illusion of the author’s or the narrator’s immediate contract with the reader. Such forms are also frequent in the publicistic, oratorical, and newspaper texts.
Semantics of the subjunctive mood forms which express wish, supposition, possibility, and unreality predetermine the use of these forms in all the styles of Modern English.
Thus, the synthetical forms of the subjunctive mood which were looked upon as obsolete have gained currency especially in American English. Such forms impart to literary texts colloquial connotations. In the publicistic style do is preferred to the analytical form with should which is regarded as more formal.
Subjective emotional evaluation may be also conveyed by means of the "emotional should” or the "would + infinitive” construction, which expresses supposition or the repetition of actions, e.g. "Why should I be ashamed of myself? – asked Gabriel” (J.Joyce); Now that there was something to be seen for his money, he had been coming down once, twice, even three times, a week and would mouse about among the debris for hours … And he would stand before them for minutes together (J.Galsworthy).
3. Поняття виразного засобу і стилістичного прийому на синтаксичному рівні. Виразні засоби синтаксису. 1. The study of the texts in terms of their syntactical organization is regarded as one of the crucial issues in stylistic analysis, though the peculiarities of syntactical arrangement are not so conspicuous as the lexical and phraseological ones. Stylistic syntax deals with specific patterns of syntactic usage, i.e. syntactical expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD). In stylistic syntax, EM are recognized by less rule-bound modeling of sentences. All the deviations from the stylistically unmarked sentence pattern (S - P - 0 - D) are treated as its transforms that may acquire stylistic connotations, in which cases they are regarded as EM, The transformation of the pattern in question into negative and interrogative sentences rarely leads to any stylistic changes. Other transformations might create stylistically marked sentence patterns. According to the type of transformation of the neutral syntactical pattern, all EM in English fall into three groups: 1. EM based on the reduction of the syntactical pattern that results from the deliberate omission of some (s) of obligatory elementthe sentence structure. This group includes ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, and asyndeton. 2. EM based on the redundancy of the syntactical pattern that results from the addition of some sentence elements or their deliberate repetition. To this group we refer repetition, enumeration, syntactic tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, parenthetical clauses or sentences. 3. EM based on the violation of the grammatically fixed word order within a sentence or a deliberate isolation of some parts of the sentence. Here belong stylistic inversion, syntactical split, and detachment. The stylistic effect in syntax may be created not only due to the intrasentential relations (those between the olornents of a sentence), but also due to the intersentential (i.e. the relations between several sentences) relations within paragraphs and other supraphrasal unities. The stylistic effect in supersyntax may be achieved by the use of SD, i.e. stylistically marked means and patterns of combination of sentences within a larger context. SD may also be created due to the transposition of the syntactical meaning of a sentence in context. In this case a sentence acquires an additional meaning which is not typical of the corresponding syntactical structure. Thus, taking into account the character of the relations between syntactical structures, possible transpositions of meanings in a context, and the means and types of connection within a sentence, we distinguish the following groups of syntactical SD: 1. SD based on the peculiar formal and semantic interaction of syntactical constructions within a sentential or suprasentential context: parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora. 2. SD based on the transposition of the syntactical meaning in context: rhetorical questions. 3. SD based on the transformation of the types and means of connection within or between sentences: parcellation, subordination instead of coordination, and coordination instead of subordination.
2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF ENGLISH SYNTAX 2.1. EM BASED ON THE REDUCTION OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE. Ellipsis the omission from a syntactical construction of one or more words which might be clearly understood from context. Elliptical sentences are regularly employed in conversational English. Being used in fiction, they result in achieving some stylistic effect by: 1) giving, speech characteristics, e.g. Not him, sir. Too pleased with himself. Some gentlemen can't act... Too stiff (A. Christie); 2) emphasizing some fact(s), e.g. The robbery. Long Ago. Very valuable emeralds... The lady's made and the tweeny (A. Christie); 3) imitating spontaneity, e.g. "Quick - in here," Poirot led the way into the nearest room..."And you - behind the curtain" (A. Christie). Aposiopesis is a break in speech, while the thought is not completed, which is caused by the speaker's inability or unwillingness to finish the utterance, e.g. "Are you - are you and Paul...? " she stopped, squeezing my arm (D. Hammett); "It can be - you don't mean.." (A. Christie). Nominative sentences are one-member sentences with a noun, a prepositional noun-phrase, or an adverb. These verbless sentences are grammatically independent. In contrast with elliptical sentences, they have only one principal part, with or without words modifying it. Nominative sentences may produce the effect of: 1) increasing the dynamism of narration, e.g. A remarkable woman - a dangerous woman. No waiting - no preparation. This afternoon - this very afternoon - with him here as witness... (A. Christie); 2) acquainting the reader with the place or background of action, e.g. Three blocks more... Another three blocks. (D. Hammett). Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions used to connect sentences, clauses, or words. As far as its stylistic role is concerned, asyndeton creates a certain rhythmical arrangement, usually making the narrative measured, energetic, and tense, e.g. That's all I'm to do, all I want to do (D. Hammett); Tree and hall rose peaceful under the night sky and dear full orb; pearly paleness gilded the building; mellow brown gloom bosomed it round; shadows of deep green brooded above its oak-wreathed roof (Ch. Bronte).
2.2. EM BASED ON THE REDUNDANCY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on certain parts of the sentence. Various types of repetition can be found in fiction: 1) ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a word in close succession, e.g. She talked, in fact, and talked, and talked (A. Berkley); 2) framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in which the opening word or phrase is repeated at the end of the sentence or a group of sentences, e.g. I cooled off where Frank was concerned; he didn't notice, but I cooled off (V. Pritchett); 3) anadiplosis, or catch repetition, i.e. a repetition of the last word in a sentence or clause at the beginning of the next one, e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd go to one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know who to go to, who I could trust (D. Hammett);
4) chain repetition, i.e. a combination of catch repetitions, e.g. A smile would come into Mr.Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became general (Ch. Dickens). Enumeration is a repetition of homogeneous parts of the sentence, aimed at emphasizing the whole utterance, e.g. I found butlers, secondmen, chauffeurs, COOKS, maids, upstairs girs, downstairs girls, and a raft of miscellaneous flunkies - he had enough servants to run a hotel (D. Hammett). Syntactical tautology is a superfluous repetition of semantically identical words or phrases to lay stress on a certain part of the sentence e.g. She's always one for a change, Gladdie is... (A. Christie). Polysyndeton is a repetition of conjunctions in close succession which are used to connect sentences, clauses, or words and make the utterance more rhythmical, e.g. She had herself a rich ruby look, for what with eating and drinking, and shouting and laughing and singing her face was crimson and almost steaming (J. Priestley). Emphatic constructions may intensity or contrast any part of the sentence, giving it an emotive charge. The emphatic construction with ‘do’ is used as a predicate intensifier. The construction "it is smb/smth who/that" intensifies the subject; the construction ''it is then that" stresses the adverbial modifier of time; "it is by/with/through smth that” makes prominent the adverbial modifier of manner. "It is to that/smth there that" brings to the foreground the object of the sentence, e.g. That evening it was Dave, who read to the boys their bed-time story (D.Carter); It was then that Poirot received a brief note from Sady Willard (A. Christie); I do know it! (D. Hammett). Parenthetical clauses are sentences or phrases inserted into a syntactical structure without being grammatically connected with it. The functions of parenthesis are those of exemplification, deliberation, or reference. Parenthetical clauses may produce various stylistic effects: 1) creating two layers of the narrative, e.g. He tried to shake Wynant down by threat-ening to shoot him, bomb his house. Kidnap his children, cut his wife's throat - I don't know what all - if he didn’t come across (D. Hammett); 2) emphasizing this or that fact, e.g. He laughed - not loud but in complete delight - and stood up exclaiming: "Judith herself!" (D. Hammett); 3) exemplifying certain points, e.g. The dog – a shapeless monster in the night-buried itself at the other side of the gate and barked terrifically (D. Hammett).
2.3. EM BASED ON THE VIOLATION OF THE WORD-ORDER Inversion is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence. There are two major kinds of inversion: 1. that one which results in the change of the grammatical meaning of a syntactic struc-ture, i.e. grammatical inversion (exclamatory and interrogative sentences), and 2. that one which results in adding to a sentence an emotive and emphatic colouring, i.e. stylistic inversion, e.g. And the palm-trees I like them not (A. Christie). Inversion may be of two types: 1) complete, i.e. comprising the principal parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind me came Andrews voice (S. Chaplin); 2) partial, i.e. influencing the secondary parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into the arms of the police they will go (A. Christie). Separation, or syntactical split, is the splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute adjunct which is removed from the word it modifies. Stylistically, syntactical split is used to emphasize the phrase which was separated, e.g. He had never seen the truth before, about anything (R. Warren). Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasizing it, e.g. Formidable and ponderous, counsel for the defence arose (A. Christie). Detachment is to be regarded as a special kind of inversion, when some parts of the sentence are syntactically separated from its other members with which they are grammatically and logically connected.
3. SYNTACTICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES 3.1. SD BASED ON FORMAL AND SEMANTIC INTERACTION OF SYNTACTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS Parallelism is a repetition in close succession of the constructions formed by a similar syntactical pattern. Like inversion, parallelism may be complete and partial. Complete parallelism is observed when the syntactical pattern of the sentence that follows is completely similar to the proceeding one, e.g. He door-bell didn't ring. His telephone-bell didn't ring (D. Hammett). Parallelism is considered to be partial when either the beginning or the end of several neighbouring sentences are structurally similar, e.g. I want to see the Gorgensons together at home, I want to see Macawlay and I want to see Studsy Burke (D. Hammett). Chiasmus (reversed parallelism) is a kind of parallelism where the word order of the sentence or clause that follows becomes inverted, e.g. He sat and watched me, I sat and watched him (D. Hammett). The main stylistic function of chiasmus is to emphasize this or that part of the utterance, to break the rhythm and monotony of parallelism, e.g. Guild waited for me to say something, I waited for him (D. Hammett). Anaphora is a repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, e.g. Еrgo, she didn't: Ergo, there never was such a bet. Ergo, Beresford was lying. Ergo, Beresford wanted to get hold of those chocolates for some reason other than he stated (A. Berkley). Anaphora contributes greatly to creating a certain rhythm of the narrative. Epiphora is the repetition of the final words or word-groups in succeeding sentences or clauses, e.g. I come to you on the level. Studsy says you are on the level. Be on the level (D. Hammett).
3.2. SD BASED ON THE TRANSPOSITION OF SYNTACTICAL MEANING Rhetorical questions are negative or affirmative statements rather than questions, possible answers being implied by the question itself, e.g. Is the day of the supernatural over? (A. Christie). Rhetorical questions can often be found in modern fiction in the descriptions of the character's inner state, his/her meditations and reflections, e.g. And then, like a douche of cold water, came the horrible thought, was she right? (A. Christie).
3.3. SD BASED ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF TYPES AND MEANS OF SYN-TACTIC CONNECTION Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more isolated parts, separated by a pause and a period. Parcellation is typical of colloquial speech. The main stylistic functions of parcellation are as follows: 1) specification of some concepts or facts, e.g. His wife had told him only the night before that he was getting a habit of it. Curious things, habits (A. Christie); 2) characterization of the personages' emotional state, e.g. It angered him finally. With a curious sort of anger Detached, somehow, separate from himself (C.B. Gilford); 3) description of the events or giving the personages' portrayal, e.g. I’d say he was thirty-five or –six. Sallow, dark hair and eyes, with the eyes set pretty close together, big mouth, long limp nose, bat-wing ears - shifty-looking (D.Hammett); A touring car, large, black, powerfully engined and with lowered curtains, came from the rear... Possibly a scout (D. Hammett). The usage of coordination instead of subordination helps the author, to show differ-ent planes of narration. In this case the connection itself is more important stylistically than the contents of the sentence, e.g. He was more enthusiastic about America than ever, and he was not so simple, and he was not so nice (E. Hemingway).
4. Основні стилі мовленнєвої діяльності: офіційно-діловий стиль, науково-професійний стиль, публіцистичний стиль, літературно-розмовний стиль, фамільярно-розмовний стиль.
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