МАТЕРІАЛИ ДЛЯ САМОСТІЙНОЇ ПІДГОТОВКИAt the end of the 18th century Poland differed sharply from its neighbors (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) which were strong and centralized absolutist monarchies. Poland in contrast became very weak. Its nobility boasted of “golden freedoms” that, practically speaking, provided the nobles with immunity before the law. That also meant that the land became almost impossible to govern. The king power was very weak. He was elected by the nobility and depended on them. The nobles did not want to submit to anybody and there were numerous wars among them. The nobles had the right to raise their private armies and build fortresses. In fact, anarchy reigned in Poland at that time. So it was a matter of time for Poland to be destroyed by its powerful neighbors. Finally, the Commonwealth’s three aggressive neighbors: Russia, Prussia, and Austria decided to take advantage of the situation and to divide the weak country among themselves. As a result of three partitions – those of 1772, 1775, and 1795 – Poland-Lithuania ceased to exist. That was the end of one of the biggest European states where the szlachta (nobility) placed their personal liberties and wellbeing above the interests of the state. These radical changes in the political map of Eastern Europe affected Ukrainians directly. Ukrainian ethnic lands were divided between Russia (80%) and Austria (20%). Austria received Galicia, Bukovyna, and Transcarpathia (Закарпаття), the rest of Polish-ruled Ukraine was attached to Russia. These divisions had a great impact on the formation of Ukrainian mentality. They deepened the differences between eastern and western Ukrainians.
[1] Cossack officers were to belong to the szlachta and be appointed by the Polish government. [2] That experience helped him later. [3] Later, during the uprising, Khmelnytskyi managed to return the woman and marry her. After the marriage she had been unfaithful to the hetman and lost her life. She was hung with her lover. [4] The hetman hoped, however, to satisfy the Tatars with Polish prisoners. [5] The word ‘Polish noble’ meant first of all a Catholic noble. He could be and often was a Ukrainian by nationality. [6]In the 17th century Jewish chronicles Khmelnytskyi is called ‘Khmel the Wicked.’ Ukrainian historians say that it was impossible for Khmelnytskyi to keep this large-scale uprising under his control and thus he cannot be blamed for all horrible crimes of that time. [7] The most notorious executioners of the Jews were the popular Cossack colonels Maksym Kryvonis and Danylo Nechai. Khmelnytskyi even planned to execute Kryvonis for his extreme cruelty. [8] For example, in 1648 when Cossacks captured a hill with the church of St.Iura near Lviv, they killed all local parishioners despite the fact that all of the parishioners were Orthodox Ukrainians. [9] The colonel was not only cruel but brave, when he lost his arm in battle he continued fighting with another arm, not paying attention to pain. [10] The ethnic composition of his army was predominantly Ukrainian, made up of the nadvirni Cossacks. The same can be said about private armies of other Polonized nobles. [11] Nero was one of the cruelest Roman emperors. He went down into history as a symbol of extreme cruelty. [12] Especially catastrophic for the Poles was the Zboriv battle where the king was going to capitulate but was ‘saved’ by the Tatars who were not interested in Cossack victory and pressed Khmelnytskyi to sign a peace treaty with the king. [13] Bratslav lands included the major part of present-day Vynnytsia region. [14] The Cossack territory included present-day Kyiv region, Chernihiv region, Poltava region, parts of Podillia and Volhynia. [15] The Jesuit Order was very active in spreading Catholicism. [16] Polish historians blame the Cossacks for resuming the war while Ukrainian historians accuse Poles of that. [17] The total number of both armies was about 300,000. [18] This time went down into Polish history as ‘deluge’ (потоп). [19] He planned to create a powerful Ukrainian state within Russia’s borders and establish his own dynasty. [20] This agreement was to be like that of Pereiaslav in many respects but under Swedish protection. [21] Kulish wrote that ‘Khmelnytskyi turned a prosperous country into a desert.’ [22] At first B. Khmenknytskyi was succeeded by his son Iurii; Vyhovskyi was to be a regent. Since Iurii was only 16 the Cossack starshyna decided to send him to the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium to finish his course and elected Vyhovskyi hetman. [23] During the Ruin the Ottoman Empire captured Ukrainian Podillia and kept it from 1672 till 1699 when Poland got it back. Muslim cemeteries and mosques in Vinnitsa and Ternopil oblasts still remind of the period of Turkish rule. [24] Many Ukrainians, especially from the Right Bank, abounded their lands and moved to ‘Sloboda Ukraine’ (present-day Kharkiv and Sumy regions), a territory granted by Russia to Ukrainian settlers. [25] In contrast to Ukraine, the existence of monarchical tradition in Russia usually saved the state from political conflicts after the death of tsar. Everyone knew who should be the next tsar. [26] Catholics, Uniates (Greek Catholics), and Jews were driven out of Eastern Ukraine by the Cossacks. [27] Mazepa had been a womanizer all his life. Even in his old years, when he was over sixty, Mazepa had a love affair with a 16-year girl Motria Kochubeyivna. [28] Many Cossacks were not satisfied with Moscow rule. They had to spend a lot of time in wars, build canals and fortresses far away from their homes (Northern Russia, Caucasus) where over 30 % of them died of poor nutrition and difficult climatic conditions. [29] Their property was confiscated and many of them were arrested and imprisoned. [30] “Little Russia” was the name of Ukraine used by Russians. [31] It is interesting to note that Russian historians do not consider Khmelnytskyi as traitor of Poland despite the fact that the hetman was a Polish subject. The same can be said about the Moldavian ruler Cantemir who being a subject of Turkish sultan tried to join Moldavia to Russia. There are many monuments to Cantemir erected in Russia and there are many streets named after him in Russian cities. [32] Nations normally do not consider traitors their leaders who wanted to get independence. George Washington ‘betrayed’ Great Britain, Simon Bolivar ‘betrayed’ Spain, Khmelnytskyi ‘betrayed’ Poland, and so on. All these leaders are praised by their nations as heroes; streets, cities, and even countries named after them. [33] The new Cossack uniform was blue with red collar and white trousers. The hats were of different colors depending on the regiment. [34] The last otaman Petro Kalnyshevskyi was sent to the island of Solovki in Northern Russia where he spent 25 years in prison in one-man cell until he reached the age of 110. After releasing from prison he decided not to return to Ukraine and spend his last years in a local monastery. He died at the age of 112. [35] Cossacks tried to prevent the colonization of southern Ukraine organized by the imperial government. They burnt settlements and killed colonists invited by the government from Europe. [36] By that time most of Ukrainian peasants had been practically enserfed by the edicts of hetmans. [37] About 800, 000 German colonists settled in Southern Ukraine. [38] According to the Polish-Russian treaty of 1686 (‘eternal peace’) Ukraine was divided along the Dnieper River into Polish–Ruled Right-Bank and Russian-Ruled Left-Bank areas. Right-Bank Ukraine did not include Western Ukraine. [39] Another name for the Greek Catholic Church was the Uniate (uniats’ka) Church [40] The name comes from a Ukrainian town Bar, located in present-day Vynnytsia oblast. [41] This blessing came down into history as the ‘blessing of knives.’ [42] The Turkish sultan demanded from Russia to stop the revolt and threatened to start a war if Petersburg refused to do it. [43] The word is of Rumanian origin and means ‘robber.’ МАТЕРІАЛИ ДЛЯ САМОСТІЙНОЇ ПІДГОТОВКИ
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