Virtual, override, and abstract methods

When an instance method declaration includes a virtual modifier, the method is said to be a virtual method. When no virtual modifier is present, the method is said to be a non-virtual method.

When a virtual method is invoked, the run-time type of the instance for which that invocation takes place determines the actual method implementation to invoke. In a nonvirtual method invocation, the compile-time type of the instance is the determining factor.

A virtual method can be overridden in a derived class. When an instance method declaration includes an override modifier, the method overrides an inherited virtual method with the same signature. Whereas a virtual method declaration introduces a new method, an override method declaration specializes an existing inherited virtual method by providing a new implementation of that method.

An abstract method is a virtual method with no implementation. An abstract method is declared with the abstract modifier and is permitted only in a class that is also declared abstract. An abstract method must be overridden in every non-abstract derived class.

The following example declares an abstract class, Expression, which represents an expression tree node, and three derived classes, Constant, VariableReference, and Operation, which implement expression tree nodes for constants, variable references, and arithmetic operations. (This is similar to, but not to be confused with the expression tree types introduced in section §4.6).

using System;
using System.Collections;

public abstract class Expression
{
public abstract double Evaluate(Hashtable vars);
}

public class Constant: Expression
{
double value;

public Constant(double value) {
this.value = value;
}

public override double Evaluate(Hashtable vars) {
return value;
}
}

public class VariableReference: Expression
{
string name;

public VariableReference(string name) {
this.name = name;
}

public override double Evaluate(Hashtable vars) {
object value = vars[name];
if (value == null) {
throw new Exception("Unknown variable: " + name);
}
return Convert.ToDouble(value);
}
}

public class Operation: Expression
{
Expression left;
char op;
Expression right;

public Operation(Expression left, char op, Expression right) {
this.left = left;
this.op = op;
this.right = right;
}

public override double Evaluate(Hashtable vars) {
double x = left.Evaluate(vars);
double y = right.Evaluate(vars);
switch (op) {
case '+': return x + y;
case '-': return x - y;
case '*': return x * y;
case '/': return x / y;
}
throw new Exception("Unknown operator");
}
}

The previous four classes can be used to model arithmetic expressions. For example, using instances of these classes, the expression x + 3 can be represented as follows.

Expression e = new Operation(
new VariableReference("x"),
'+',
new Constant(3));

The Evaluate method of an Expression instance is invoked to evaluate the given expression and produce a double value. The method takes as an argument a Hashtable that contains variable names (as keys of the entries) and values (as values of the entries). The Evaluate method is a virtual abstract method, meaning that non-abstract derived classes must override it to provide an actual implementation.

A Constant’s implementation of Evaluate simply returns the stored constant. A VariableReference’s implementation looks up the variable name in the hashtable and returns the resulting value. An Operation’s implementation first evaluates the left and right operands (by recursively invoking their Evaluate methods) and then performs the given arithmetic operation.

The following program uses the Expression classes to evaluate the expression x * (y + 2) for different values of x and y.

using System;
using System.Collections;

class Test
{
static void Main() {

Expression e = new Operation(
new VariableReference("x"),
'*',
new Operation(
new VariableReference("y"),
'+',
new Constant(2)
)
);

Hashtable vars = new Hashtable();

vars["x"] = 3;
vars["y"] = 5;
Console.WriteLine(e.Evaluate(vars)); // Outputs "21"

vars["x"] = 1.5;
vars["y"] = 9;
Console.WriteLine(e.Evaluate(vars)); // Outputs "16.5"
}
}