The composite sentence. The complex sentence
The complex sentence, like the simple and compound sentences, presents a universal unit in the syntactic systems of all According to I.V. Korunets’ [10; 408–409], the nature of many logical-grammatical relations created between the subordinate and the matrix clause generally corresponds to the nature of relations created between the adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate word-groups. Hence, there are distinguished the following groups of subordinate clauses:
Similar ideas are expressed by another Ukrainian scholar
1. The subject clause / Підметове підрядне речення This type of subordinate sentence or clause performs the function of the subject in regard to the principal clause. If such a type of clause is eliminated then the principal clause becomes incomplete and looses its sense. In English such sentences are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, whether, if and the connective words (сполучні слова) who, what, which, the pronouns whatever, whoever, whichever, the pronominal adverbs where, when, why, how, e.g.: That he has made this mistake is strange. Whether he will come is uncertain. Ukrainian subject clauses are most often connected with the help of relative pronouns хто, що in the form of different cases. The main clause necessarily contains the correlative (or demonstrative) word which performs the function of the formal subject, most often these are such words as – той, та, те, ті, or весь (вся, все, всі). Compare: Перемагає той, хто невідступно бореться. Всі, хто побачив його, вклонилися. When a demonstrative word is absent the connection between the principal and subordinate parts of the sentence becomes closer and acquires the adversative meaning, e.g.: Що не склонилось – ожило, що не скорилось – не зійшло з народної дороги (А. Малишко) [5; 143–144]. 2. The predicative clause / Присудкове підрядне речення Clauses of this type are connected with the help of auxiliary part of the compound predicate of the principal clause and substitute or complement its predicative member (that is the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate). In English such sentences are connected with the help of the conjunctions that, whether, if, as if, and the connective words what, who, why, where, how, when, e.g.: This is what I have thought for the last fifteen years. The weather is not what it was yesterday. The authors of different grammars do not coincide in their views regarding the type of such subordinate sentences which refer to the principal clause with the formal subject it, e.g.: It is strange that he should behave so. The majority of linguists consider such clauses to be subject subordinate clauses. The linguist L.L. Ioffic is of the view that such sentences can be regarded as predicative subordinate clauses. He considers that the principal clause has the impersonal character and the relations between the adjective of the principal clause and the subordinate clause are similar to the relations between the parts of the compound predicate. In Ukrainian predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause by means of the conjunctions and the connective words хто, що, який, щоб and others. The principal clause contains necessarily the correlative word той (та, те, ті), or такий (така, таке, такі), e.g.: Він не такий, щоб без діла сидіти. Ми – ті, що ви хотіли бачити [5; 144].
3. The object/objective clause / Підрядне додаткове речення English object clauses are connected by means of the conjunctions that, whether, if and those connective words that are used for subject and predicative subordinate clauses. The asyndetic connection of object clauses is also widespread. In Ukrainian the most characteristic conjunctions of object clauses are що and щоб. Besides, the following connective words are also widely used: pronouns хто, що, який, чий, котрий, стільки; adverbs як, де, куди, звідки, коли, чому, нащо. Compare: We didn't forget that our destination was far away. Ми не забували, що до мети ще далеко. As well as in other types of subordinate sentences main sentences can have demonstrative or correlative words той, та, те, ті: Скориставшись з того, що я відвернувся, він проскочив у хату. In object clauses which present the indirect speech in English the phenomenon of sequence of tenses is widely spread. In Ukrainian this phenomenon is absent [5; 146–147].
4. Attributive clauses / Підрядні означальні речення In English attributive clauses are joined to the principal clause with the help of the following connective words: relative pronouns who, which, that, relative adverbs when, where, why or they can be joined without conjunctions at all. In the Ukrainian language the attributive clause is typically connected with the principal clause with the help of the connective words який, чий, хто, що, котрий in different forms. More rarely they are joined with the help of the connective words де, куди, звідки, коли, як. Sometimes attributive clauses are connected with the help of the conjunctions як, ніби, наче, неначе, мов, немов, and others. In both languages attributive clauses are not homogeneous in their grammatical nature and are subdivided into two distinct groups – restrictive/limiting (обмежувальні) and descriptive (описові). Restrictive attributive clauses are tightly connected with a certain word of the main clause performing the function of its attribute. Moreover, the idea expressed by the main clause does not finish on its boundary with the subordinate clause; when the subordinate sentence is removed the meaning of the principal clause becomes blurred, unclear. Compare: There was a small stone at that corner of the room which was the nearest to the master's desk (Ch. Dickens). У тому кутку кімнати, що був найближче до столу вчителя, був невеликий камінь. Descriptive attributive clauses also belong to one member of the main clause but are not connected with it so tightly. Such subordinate clauses can be easily omitted without distorting the content of the main clause. Compare: The manager of our office, who is a highly educated man, speaks several foreign languages. Менеджер нашої установи, який є високоосвіченим, розмовляє кількома іноземними мовами. The connective word in sentences of such a type can be easily replaced by the coordinating conjunction (сурядний сполучник) and the pronoun, e.g.: In the street I met some children, who ( = and they) showed me the way to the station. На вулиці я зустрів дітей, які (= і вони) показали мені дорогу на станцію. In English restrictive attributive clauses are more tightly connected with the main clause than in Ukrainian. In terms of punctuation it is revealed in the way that English restrictive attributive clauses are not separated by comas whereas in Ukrainian all attributive clauses are separated by comas [5; 144–145].
5. Adverbial clauses / Підрядні обставинні речення Such clauses are of various types in both languages. 5.1. Adverbial clauses of place / підрядні речення місця. In both languages the sentences of such a type characterize the action of the main or principal clause, pointing towards its place or direction. English sentences are joined to the main clause with the help of the connective words where, wherever, whence. Ukrainian adverbial clauses of place are connected with the principal clause with the help of the connective words де, куди, звідки (розм. відкіль, звідкіль). Unlike English in the Ukrainian main clauses there can be observed the use of the so-called demonstrative words – adverbs, having spatial meaning, – там, туди, звідти (розм. звідтіль, відти), for example: Звідти, звідки на темному фоні неба все частіше спалахувала блискавка, загуркотів грім. In the English main clauses demonstrative words of such a meaning are not used in similar cases, and the main function of the expression of relations of place and direction is rendered with the help of the connective word and the context. Compare: I shall go where my brother lives. Я поїду туди, де живе мій брат [5; 147–148]. 5.2. Adverbial clauses of time / підрядні речення часу. The adverbial clauses of time are joined in English to the main one with the help of the conjunctions when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since, as long as, etc. In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of time are joined with the help of the following connective words and conjunctions: коли, відколи, поки (розм. покіль), аж поки, доки (розм. докіль), аж доки, як після того як, в міру того як, тільки, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве, скор о and others. In English the function of conjunctions of adverbial clauses of time can be fulfilled also by some adverbs, for example, directly, immediately: I recognized the place directly I saw it. – Я пізнав це місце, як тільки його побачив. Immediately he received the telegram, he started for Kyiv. – Як тільки (ледве, щойно) він одержав телеграму, він виїхав до Києва. The connective function with the meaning of time is performed in modern English also by some nouns or word-combinations: the moment (в ту мить як), the day (в той день коли), the evening (у той вечір коли), the next time (наступного разу), at the time (в той час як), by the time (до того часу коли), etc.: The moment I saw him I understood everything. – У ту мить, як я його побачив, я все зрозумів. The peculiarity of Ukrainian adverbial clauses of time are the composite conjunctions of the type після того як, відтоді як, в той час як, відтоді як, з того часу як, в той часяк etc. The first part of such a conjunction can be placed in the main clause, whereas the second part як (коли) – is in the subordinate clause and is separated from the first one by the intonation pause, and by coma in writing, e.g.: Зробимо це після того, як усі матеріали будуть перевірені [5; 147–149]. 5.3. Adverbial clauses of manner (attending circumstances) / підрядні речення способу дії (супровідних обставин) Adverbial classes of manner are joined in English with the help of the conjunctions as, the way, as if, as though. They point out in what way the action of the main clause takes place. Rather often such a sentence bears in its meaning some sort of comparison, connected with the shade of suggestion, e.g.: You speak so as if you did not know me. – Ви говорите так, ніби ви мене не знаєте. In Ukrainian such subordinate sentences are joined with the help of the connective word як and the conjunctions: як, ніби, мoв, немов, наче, неначе, ніж (розм. аніж), що and others. All of them (except ніж, чим) have a correlative word так in the main clause, which is concretized by the subordinate sentence: Він ішов так, наче добре знав дорогу. Among the adverbial clauses of manner there are differentiated in both languages the three subtypes: a) Adverbial clauses of manner proper (власне способу дії), joined in English with the help of the conjunctions: as, as … as and others; in Ukrainian – як, що, щоб, e.g.: You ought to write as he does. Буде так, як хотіла ти (В. Сосюра). b) Adverbial clauses of comparison (порівняльні) with the conjunctions: in English as if, as though; in Ukrainian як, ніби, мов, немов, наче, неначе, e.g. I remember this story as if (as though) I had just read i t. А він, мов нічого не чув, іде собі далі The peculiarity of English adverbial clauses of comparison is that their predicate is used in the form of conditional mood: He spoke as if (as though) he knew this question very well. In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of comparison are also widely used in conditional mood, where almost all conjunctions can be joined with the particle би/б: По траві плили хвилі, начебто це був не луг, а річка. c) Adverbial clauses of result (наслідкові) with the conjunctions: in English so … that; in Ukrainian що, аж, for example: He played so that we admired him. Вода б’ється в береги, аж осока шумить (Леся Українка) [5; 149–150]. 5.4. Adverbial clauses of measure or degree / підрядні речення міри або ступеня. These adverbial clauses are very close in their meaning to adverbial clauses of manner. While the latter usually explain the verb-predicate of the main clause, adverbial clauses of measure or degree refer to some adjective or adverb in such a sentence. In English such sentences are connected with the main clause with the help of the conjunctions as…as, so…as, as, as if, as though, not so...as and others, e.g.: He played so well that everybody admired him. – Він грав так гарно, що всі ним захопилися. In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of measure or degree also include clauses joined with help of double conjunctions чим…тим, що…то, чим…то and others, for example: Чим вище дерево тим, глибше йде коріння. Що далі ми заглиблювалися в ліс, то темніше ставало навкруги [5; 150–151]. 5.5. Adverbial clauses of purpose / підрядні речення мети English adverbial clausesof purpose are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest, for fear (that). These clauses are marked in the way that their predicate has a special modal expression. Very often it is used in the analytical form of conditional mood: I speak slowly so that you may understand me. Я говорю повільно, щоб ви мене зрозуміли. In Ukrainian such clauses are joined most often by the conjunctions щоб and для того щоб, less often by – аби, for example: Він піде туди, щоб почути все самому [5; 151]. 5.6. Adverbial clauses of cause / підрядні речення причини. Adverbial clauses of cause are joined in English to the main clause with the help of the conjunctions because, as, since, now that. Sentences with the conjunction because point towards the immediate cause of action or state, which is spoken about in the main clause, while the adverbial clause of cause with the conjunction as usually motivates content of the main sentence. Compare: I went away because there was no one there. – Я пішов, бо там не було нікого. As there was no one, I had to work alone. – Оскільки там не було нікого, я мусив працювати один. Besides the mentioned conjunctions the adverbial clauses of cause are joined with the main clause also by means of the composite conjunctions, which originated from the substantival and participial word combinations, for example: for the reason that, on the ground that, seeing that, considering that. In Ukrainian most frequently used in adverbial clauses of cause conjunctions are: бо, тому що, через те що, тим що, від того що, що, а що, а як and others. The most peculiar of them are бо, тому що, через те що, for example: Він не ходить на збори, тому що боїться критики [5; 152]. 5.7. Adverbial clauses of condition / підрядні речення умови. In English the adverbial clauses of condition are joined with the help of the conjunctions if, unless, but that, in case, provided, suppose, supposing and others. The most often of them is the conjunction if. The conjunctions unless and but having negative meaning, point to the fact that the action of the main sentence can take place only in case, when the action of the subordinate sentence does not take place, for example: He is sure to come unless he has some urgent work to do. – Він обов’язково прийде, якщо тільки в нього немає якої-небудь дуже термінової роботи. Adverbial clauses of condition are characterized by distinct modality. That is why they are so widely used in conditional mood. In English complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition are characterized by asyndentic connection. By this there is often observed inversion, for example: Had it not been so late, I should have stayed longer. Widely spread in English are eleptical clauses of condition of the type: If necessary, I shall do it. I am sure you would act in the same way if in his place. In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of condition are connected with the help of the conjunctions коли, якщо, як, як тільки, аби, скоро, раз and others. When the adverbial clause of condition is placed before the main one, then the latter starts with the conjunction-equivalent то: Якби я знала, що діждуся, що побачу, то ще б підождала (Т. Шевченко) [5; 153]. 5.8. Adverbial clauses of concession / підрядні речення допусту. Adverbial clauses of concession are joined in English with the help of the conjunctions and the connective words though (although), in spite of the fact that, notwithstanding that, whoever, what ever, however, no matter that. Though it was only nine o'clock, there were few people in the streets. – Хоч було лише дев’ять годин, на вулицях було мало людей. He went out in spite of the fact that he was quite ill. – Він вийшов, хоч був зовсім хворий. In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of concession are joined with the main clause by means of the conjunctions and the connective words хоч (хоча, хоть), хай (нехай), дарма що, незважаючи на те що, як не, скільки не and others. These conjunctions can have as their correlatives the adversative conjunctions а, але, однак, проте etc., for example: Хоч уже листя падало, осінню пахло, а проте було тепло та ясно (П. Мирний) [5; 156]. 5.9. Adverbial clauses of result / підрядні речення наслідку. Adverbial clauses of result are joined in English to the main sentence with the help of the composite conjunction so that or the conjunction that, which has as its correlative the demonstrative adverb so, compare: She sat behind me so that I couldn't see her face. – Вона сиділа позаду мене, так що я не міг бачити її обличчя. The weather was so bad that the plane could not start. – Погода була така погана, що літак не міг вилетіти. Ukrainian adverbial clauses of result have the same type of conjunction так що (й): Підхопили всі, всі враз і з усіх сил, так що коні шарахнулися набік (Ю. Смолич). In both languages adverbial clauses of result usually occupy the position after the main clause [5; 155–156]. Discussion questions and exercise tasks: I. Consider your answers to the following: 1. Dwell upon the nature of complex sentences in English and Ukrainian. 2. Describe the subject subordinate clause in both contrasted languages. 3. Are there any difficulties in singling out predicative subordinate clauses in English and Ukrainian? 4. Compare the means of joining object clauses to the matrix clause in contrasted languages. 5. Is there any difference between English and Ukrainian descriptive attributive clauses and descriptive attributive clauses? 6. Describe the peculiarities of adverbial clauses in both contrasted languages. Provide examples of the main types of adverbial clauses in English and Ukrainian.
II. Identify complex sentences in the passages below. Dwell upon the types of clauses in these sentences; describe the means of connection of subordinate clauses to the matrix clause. 1. Temple is guilty of outright cowardice, as was National Public Radio when, in 19994, it decided not to air a series of Abu-Jamal commentaries on prison life. Some folks have speculated that both Temple and NPR knuckled under to pressure from the Fraternal Order of Police (FOP). That the FOP wouldn’t want a convicted cop killers views on the air is understandable. But I feel some voices need to be heard. (newspaper writing) 2. There are many players who might win the Masters, many who could. But the feeling about Faldo is that if he is at the top of his game, he could win it. That he is ranked only No 4 in the world at the moment is due to the eccentricity of the system. His first Masters win has now slipped from his ranking points. (newspaper writing) 3. Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole has said, “If World War III were declared, the media would still ask me about abortion.” That the media are fixated upon the differences within the GOP regarding abortion no longer is in doubt. That they don’t just as enthusiastically dissect the differences within the Democratic Party regarding abortion and same-sex marriages is a troubling example of poor journalism. (newspaper writing) *The material is taken from “Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English Workbook” by Susan Conrad, Douglas Biber, Geoffrey Leech, Pearson Education Limited, 2003. – P. 75.
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