MEDICAL SPECIALTIES AND SPECIALISTS 14 страницаThe cell contents include organelles. All the organelles and their functions in the cell are demonstrated in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1. Cell Structure
Protein plays a very important part in the organism and its production takes place in the cell. There are two nucleic acids in the cytoplasm and nucleus, which are important in protein production: - deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is mostly found in the nucleus and makes up chromosomes. DNA is double stranded; - ribonucleic acid or RNA is single stranded, it is located in the cytoplasm. Cell reproduction occurs by the dividing process called mitosis. In this process each original parent cell divides to form two identical daughter cells. Various physical processes take place in the cell: 1) diffusion - molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration; 2) osmosis - diffusion of water through the semipermeable membrane; 3) nitration - movement of materials through the cell membrane under mechanical force; 4) active transport - movement of molecules from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration; 5) phagocytosis - engulfing of large particules by the cell membrane; 6) pinocytosis - intake of droplets of fluid; the word pinocytosis means "cell drinking". Cells develop different forms, these forms of the same kind congregate to form one of the basic tissues. These tissues, in turn, become specialized organs. So, every cell and formation of cells has its purpose. But sometimes in the DNA or genetic material a mutation or change occurs. If such a cell doesn't die naturally or get destroyed by the immune system, it may begin to multiply out of control and spread to other tissues, producing cancer. Cancer cells form tumors, which interfere with normal functions, crowding out normal cells and robbing them of nutrients. Because cancer may take a long period to develop, it is often difficult to identify its causes. Certain factors increase the changes of developing the disease and are considered risk factors. Risk factors include heredity, carcinogens or chemicals (in food, environment, drags), ionising radiation (X-rays, ultraviolet rays), physical irritation (intake of hot food), diet (high in fats), viruses. Exercise 4. Look at Table 3-1, name the components of the cell, describe all of them. Exercise 5. Translate the functions of each organelle of the cell (from Table 3-1). Exercise 6.Tell about cell division. Use Figure 3-3. Exercise 7. Find English equivalents in the text. Основна одиниця життя, обмін речовин, невидимий для неозброєного ока, однолінзовий мікроскоп, ДНК, РНК, підтримує елементи клітини в цитоплазмі, мінерали і ферменти, утворення білка, процес поділу клітин - мітоз, фізичні процеси, рух матеріалів через клітинну мембрану, поглинання великих часток, клітина п'є, клітина розвиває різні форми, має свої цілі, руйнується імунною системою, переходить на інші органи, утворює пухлини, тривалий період розвитку, фактори ризику. Exercise 8. Give definitions of the words. Mutation, cell, cytoplasm, organelles, DNA, RNA, diffusion, osmosis, filtration, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, risk factors. Exercise 9. Answer the following questions. 1. Why is the study of cells so important in the study of the body? 2. Can you list organelles found in the cell? What are their functions? 3. What is the difference between DNA and RNA with respect to location in the cell? 4. How does the process of cell division take place? What is its name? 5. What is mutation? 6. What are six risk factors associated with cancer? 7. What do we call the science that studies all about cells?
II. Grammar Exercises Exercise 1. Put in articles where necessary. 1.... practical studies in... physiology included... experiments on... animals. 2.... patient Smirnov had to follow... light diet to avoid... blood pressure changes. 3. This patient complained of... sore throat when... Doctor Sedov was examining him in... Consulting Room 11.4. Last night I was excited and couldn't sleep because I suffered from... bad pain in... back. 5.... antiseptic mouth wash, which he had prescribed me, relieved... pain. 6. In... some medical journals I could find... interesting articles dealing with... new ways of... treatment of pneumonia. 7. On... physical exertion... patient, ill with... angina pectoris, complained of... sharp pain in... substernal area. 8. When I got... medical certificate, it stated that I had... good eyesight. 9. My younger sister had... sore throat, and she couldn't even swallow... tablets prescribed by... our district doctor. 10. You must gargle... throat five times a day to relieve... pain. Exercise 2. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative. 1. In his childhood he often had a bad earache. 2. My fellow student had a sore throat two days ago. 3. My friend had a good time yesterday. 4. My mother often has a headache. 5. My friends and I usually have dinner at our Institute canteen. 6.1 have a cold rubdown in the evening. 7. My sister had a bad headache the other day. Exercise 3. Finish the following sentences according to the model. Model: If I stick a label, then the label is stuck by me. If a nurse sponges a patient's skin, then the patient's skin...; if a poisonous remedy causes death, then death if this healing ointment relieves skin irritation, then skin irritation if a child takes cod liver oil, then cod liver oil if a surgeon rinses his hands, then the hands if a doctor administers a healing ointment, then the healing ointment if a patient takes sedatives, then the sedatives if a doctor prescribes sleeping draughts, then the sleeping draughts...; if he rubbed in a healing ointment to relieve pain, then the healing ointment...; if that drug caused a skin irritation, then the skin irritation if I bought a medicine dropper at the chemist's department, then the medicine dropper if he handed in a prescription for the cough mixture, then the prescription for the cough mixture.... Exercise 4. Give full negative answers to the following questions. 1. Has the standard of population nutrition in the developing countries increased considerably and stopped to be a problem? 2. Have the efforts of chemists been especially large in the protein field? 3. Has the addition of perfumes masked the natural odor of the plant constituents? 4. Had the mixture preserved its properties by the end of the experiment? 5, Had you made the experiment before the professor came? 6. Will they have produced a new carbon compound by next year? 7. Have you detected any changes in the chemical structure of the drug? Exercise 5. Translate the sentences, pay attention to the pronoun one. 1. One never knows what to do in such cases. 2. One can see various apparatuses in the laboratory. 3. One should be careful when working with reagents. 4. One is always glad to see you. 5. If one wants a thing done, one had best do it oneself. 6. One can say that the temperature has also a positive effect on solubility. Exercise 6. Act as an interpreter: Surgeon: What's wrong with your arm, Mr. Brown? Браун: Спускаючись східцями, я послизнувся і впав на праву руку. Піднімаючись, я відчув біль у руці. Боюся, що я її зламав. Surgeon: You should've been careful. Now, let me examine your hand. Does it hurt here? Браун: Так, дуже. Surgeon: I think we'd better have it X-rayed. Miss Miles will take you to the X-ray room. Some minutes later Miss Miles: Here are the pictures, Doctor. Surgeon: (to Mr. Brown) Be seated, please. (After examining the pictures) Unfortunately, it is a fracture. You will have to stay in the hospital for a couple of days. Браун: Дуже шкода. Це означає, що я не зможу продовжити поїздку країною зі своєю туристичною групою. Surgeon: I'm afraid so.
UNIT FOUR
I. Speaking: Tissues, Glands and Membranes After careful study of this unit you should be able to: - name four main groups of tissues and give the location and general characteristics of each; - describe the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands; - name four types of membranes; - explain the difference between benign and malignant tumors. Exercise 1. Learn the following words: adipose ['aedipaos] жировий areolar [з'гізіз] ареолярний benign [bi'nain] доброякісний cartilage ['kaitilidj] хрящ collagen ['knbcrjen] колаген cardiac ['kcr.diask] серцевий endocrine ['end3,krain] ендокринний epithelium [,ері'0і:1ізт] епітелій exocrine ['eksso.krain] екзокринний fascia ['faefia] фасція fiber f'faiba] волокно histology [his'tDbcfy] гістологія involuntary [in'vDbntari] мимовільний joint [anoint] суглоб malignant [mae'lignsnt] злоякісний membrane ['membrein] мембрана; оболонка metastasis [me'tcestssis] метастаз mucosa [mjui'ksuss] слизова оболонка myelin ['maiilin] міслін neoplasm ['пізи.ріазгзт] неоплазма; новоутворення; пухлина neurilemma [^njosri'lems] невролема neuroglia [nju'roglb] нейроглія neuron ['щ'изгоп] нейрон osseus ['osiss] кістковий serosa [si'reuss] серозна оболонка sweat [swet] піт voluntary ['vubntsri] довільний visceral ['visarsl] що стосується нутрощів
Exercise 2. Read the text and translate it.
Tissues, Glands and Membranes
Tissues are groups of cells similar in structure, specialized for the performance of specific tasks. The science that studies all about tissues is called histology. In the human body there are four groups of tissues: epithelial, connective, nerve and muscle. Epithelium forms a protective covering of the body and all the organs, it lines the cavities. The epithelial tissue is classified according to the shape of cells. The cells may be: - squamous ['skweimas] - fiat and irregular; - cuboidal [kju'boidal] - cubic; - columnar [кзТлтпз] - long and narrow (Fig. 4-1). They may be arranged in a single layer (simple) and in many layers (stratified). The cells of some kinds of epithelium produce mucus - a clear, sticky fluid, digestive juices, sweat, etc. The epithelial tissue also forms glands. A gland is a group of cells specialized to produce a substance that is sent out to other parts of our body. There are two categories of glands: exocrine and endocrine. Exocrine glands have ducts or tubes to carry the secretion from the gland to another organ, to a body cavity, or to the outside. Endocrine glands depend on the bloodstream. Their secretion, called hormones, is carried through the lymph or blood to other organs and they have specific effects on other tissues.
Connective tissue supports, binds and forms the framework of the body. Connective tissue may be classified simply according to its degree of hardness: 1) soft - adipose tissue and fibrous connective tissue; 2) hard - cartilage and bone; 3) liquid - blood and lymph (Fig. 4-2). The adipose tissue stores up fat for the body as reserve food, serves as heat regulator. The fibrous tissue consists of collagen and elastic fibers between cells. It may be areolar or dense (fascia, ligament, tendors, capsules). Cartilages are found at the ends of bones, nose, outer ear, trachea, etc. Bones contain calcium salts. The tissue from which bones are made is called the osseus tissue. The nerve tissue is the building material for the central nervous system: our brain and spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. The simplest unit of the nerve cell is neuron (Fig. 4-3). The muscle tissue is designed to produce movement with the help of contractions. Muscle tissue cells are called muscle fibers. Usually they are classified as follows (Fig. 4^1): 1) skeletal - a voluntary muscle that moves the skeleton; 2) cardiac - forms the heart; 3) smooth - involuntary, forms visceral organs. Membranes are thin sheets of tissue. There are four types of membranes: - mucous membranes line rubes and spaces that open to the outside (respiratory, digestive, -eproductive tracts); - serous membranes line body cavities (parietal layer) and cover internal organs (visceral •yer); - - synovial membranes line the joint cavities, they secrete a fluid that reduces friction between the ends of bones, it permits free movement of joints. You already know that normal tissue growth may be broken by an upstart formation of cells. This is a tumor, or neoplasm. If a tumor is confined to a local area and doesn't spread, it is called a benign tumor. If the tumor spreads to the neighboring tissues or distant parts of the body, it is called a malignant tumor, or cancer. The process of tumor spread is called metastasis. Here is a list of some benign and malignant tumors (the root ота means tumor): papilloma, adenoma, lipoma, osteoma, myoma, angioma, chondroma, carcinoma, sarcoma, lymphoma, glioma.
Exercise 3. Find Latin and Greek equivalents of the English words.
Exercise 4. Give definitions of the following words. Tissue, connective tissue, epithelium, membrane, tumor, benign tumor, malignant tumor, gland.
Exercise 5, Explain the meaning of the following words (in Ukrainian). Myoma, lipoma, osteoma, chondroma, adenoma, fibroma. Exercise 6. Name four main groups of tissues, give examples of their location. (Use Fig. 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4). Exercise 7. Describe the differences between exocrine and endocrine glands. Give some examples of each.
Exercise 8. Make up a plan of the text. Exercise 9. Are the sentences true or false? 1. Tissues are groups of cells specialized for certain task. 2. There are ten groups of tissues. 3. Exocrine glands produce hormones. 4. The connective tissue can be hard, soft and liquid. 5. Neuron is a blood cell. 6. Membranes are thin sheet of cells. 7. Tumor growth can be controlled. 8. Benign tumors are localized. Exercise 10. Answer the following questions. 1. What shapes of cells are found in the epithelial tissue? 2. What kind of fibers are found in the connective tissue? 3. What is the main purpose of the nerve tissue? 4. What kinds of muscle tissue do you know? Give examples. 5. What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscles? 6. What are the two types of the epithelial membrane? 7. What is a tumor? Cancer? 8. What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?
II. independent Work: Diseases Exercise 1. Read the text and translate it. Study of Diseases Disease is an abnormal state in which part or all the body doesn't function as usual. There are marked variations in the extent of disease and in its effect on the person. Disease can have a number of direct causes, such as disease-producing organisms (bacteria, viruses, parasitic worms, or helminthes); malnutrition (lack of vitamins, minerals, proteins); physical and chemical agents (heat or cold, injuries, fractures; poisonous substances, certain detergents); birth defects, degenerations and tumors. There are also indirect, or predisposing causes. The examples of them are age, sex, heredity, living conditions and habits, occupation, physical exposure, preexisting illness, psychogenic influences. The modern approach to the study of disease emphasizes the close relationship of the pathologic and physiological aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each in treating any body disorder. This is the medical science called pathophysiology. The study of the cause of any disease or the theory of its origin, is called etiology. Disease can be acute, chronic or subacute. Acute is severe but doesn't last long. Chronic lasts for a long time. Subacute is between them, it's neither severe but lasts for a long period. A communicable disease is one that can pass from one person to another. Epidemic is a disease of many people in a given region at the same time. Endemic is a disease of fewer people but it is characteristic of a particular region. Pandemic is a disease of a country, continent or the whole world. In order to treat the patient every doctor must make a diagnosis. So he must know symptoms and signs of the disease. Although nurses do not diagnose, they play a very important role in observing closely for signs, encouraging patients to talk about themselves and their symptoms, and then reporting the doctor this information. If the doctor knows about the disease, he prescribes the treatment. In recent years, physicians, nurses, and other health care workers have taken on increasing responsibilities for prevention of diseases. Exercise 2. Make up a plan of the text. Exercise 3. Answer the questions. 1. What is disease? 2. What kind of diseases do you know? 3. What causes diseases? 4. What does pathophysiology study? 5. What disease do we call communicable? 6. What is epidemic? Endemic? Pandemic? 7. What is the role of nurses in looking after patients? 8. What do medical workers do to prevent diseases?
UNIT FIVE
I. Speaking: Skeleton After careful study of this unit you should be able to: - list the bones of the axial skeleton; - list the bones of the appendicular skeleton; - name all the vertebrae; - describe three abnormal curves of the spine.
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words, remember their Latin or Greek equivalents.
Exercise 2. Read the texts A and B. Try to understand them without using a dictionary.
Text A. Skeleton
The skeleton is composed of bones. In the adult the skeleton has over 200 bones. The bones of the skull consist of cranial and facial parts. There are 26 bones in the skull. The bones of the trunk are the spinal column or the spine and the chest (ribs and breastbone). The spine consists of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae and the coccyx. The vertebra is a small bone, which is formed by the body and the arch. All the vertebrae compose the spinal column or the spine. There are 32 or 34 vertebrae in the spine of the adult. In the spinal column there arc seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar, five sacral vertebrae and from one to five vertebrae which form the coccyx. The cervical part of the spine is formed by seven cervical vertebrae. Twelve thoracic vertebrae have large bodies. The lumbar vertebrae are the largest vertebrae in the spinal column. They have oval bodies. The chest (thorax) is composed of 12 thoracic vertebrae, the breastbone and 12 pairs of ribs. The breastbone is a long bone in the middle of the chest. It is composed of three main parts. The basic part of the chest is formed by the ribs. On each side of the chest seven ribs are connected with the breastbone by cartilages. The cartilages of three other ribs are connected with each other and with the seventh rib. But the cartilages of these ribs are not connected with the breastbone. The eleventh and twelfth ribs are not connected with the breastbone either (також). They are not connected with other ribs, they are free. Each rib is composed of a head, a neck and a body. The lower extremity consists of the thigh, leg and foot. It is connected with the trunk by the pelvis. The upper extremity is formed by the arm, forearm and hand. It is connected with the trunk by the shoulder girdle. The bones of the skeleton are connected together by the joints or by the cartilages and ligaments. The bones consist of organic and inorganic substances.
Text B. Skull The main part of the head and face is called the skull. The skull is composed of twenty-six bones. These bones form two basic parts of the skull, they are facial and cranial parts. The bones of the skull are connected together so firmly (міцно) that is very difficult to separate them. The bones of the skull form one large cavity and some smaller cavities. The large cavity is called the cranial cavity. The brain is in the cranial cavity. One of the smaller cavities is the oral cavity and the other is the cavity of the nose. The other two cavities are the orbits. The eyeballs are in the orbits.
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