TRANSLATE FROM ENGLISH INTO RUSSIAN

The Present Simple Tense

1. Trade union power rests on the ability to withdraw the supply of labour, that is, the strike weapon.

2. Some economists emphasise the role of profit as a
necessary incentive for innovation.

3. All enterprises in a capitalist economy involve a
degree of risk.

4. Profit plays an important part in determining the
allocation of resources.

5. They usually hold their European meeting in Paris.

6. These products usually sell for about five years.

7. They appraise their employees once a year.

8. The large industrialised countries account for a large
proportion of international trade.

The Past Simple Tense

1. An Equal Pay Act came into force in Britain in
December 1975.

2. The classical economists regarded money as no more
than a medium of exchange.

3. Bank-notes first came into use in Britain during the
seventeenth century.

4. The Bank Charter Act of 1844 followed a long dis­
pute about the control of money supply.

5. When did you reach the break-even point?

6. Last year the results were not very pleasing.

7. I attended a meeting of that committee last week.

The Future Simple Tense

1. Changes in the total population and changes in the age distribution will affect both the total demand for goods and services and the composition of that demand.

2. An increase in price usually means that production
will become more profitable.

3. The imposition of indirect taxes will bring about
changes in supply.

4. In a situation of full employment, the supply of most
goods and services will be inelastic.

5. Economic theory indicates that, under monopoly,
output will be lower and price will be higher than would be
the case under perfect competition.

6. Changes in the rate of interest on government securi­
ties will often affect share prices.

7. Competition between firms will lead to the elimina­
tion of firms which are unable to change their products and
their methods of production.

The Present Continuous Tense

1. Economic conditions are changing all the time.

2. What we are now witnessing in many capitalist coun­
tries is a fundamental change in the traditional attitudes
towards private enterprise.

3. They are starting a new sales campaign next week.

4. She is working in Rome at the moment.

5. What are you doing this evening?

6. At present we are recruiting a new sales director.

7. Sales are not increasing at the moment.

8. He is attending a meeting now.

9. She is coming tomorrow.

10. If a country is suffering from inflation, a floating rate may remove some of the pressure on the government to deal with the problem.

The Past Continuous Tense

1. He didn't see anything while the meeting was going on.

2. While we were discussing cost-cutting measures, the
GM was presenting the poor results.

3. What were you doing at this time last month?

4. He was working for ABC when the merger took place.

5. She was reading a newspaper when the phone rang.

The Future Continuous Tense

1. He will be walking to school at 8 a.m. tomorrow.

2. She will be working on her thesis for the next three years.

3. When population is growing fast, the proportion of
the people in the younger age will be increasing.

The Present Perfect Tense

1. The targe scale transfer of ownership of industry from
the public sector to the private sector has led to an impor­
tant increase in the individual ownership of shares.

2. The distribution of industry has now become a major
feature of government economic policy.

3. In recent years the government has provided financial
assistance towards the costs of developments in micro-elec­
tronics, office automation, computer-aided design, robots
and aerospace.

4. Recent years have seen substantial changes in the
occupational distribution of the labour force.

5. In many countries economic development has led to
periods of rapid population growth.

6. The large-scale adoption of computer technology has
had a dramatic effect on the work of the Stock Exchange.

7. Up to now we have tested five applications.

219

 

8. Turnover has increased by 5 per cent this year.

9. She has worked in the department for 10 years.

 

10. Have you chosen an advertising agency yet?

11. Their unpaid debts have reached an unacceptable level.

12. The delivery has just now arrived.

13. There has been a tendency in recent years to move
away from the rigid distinction between macro- and micro­
economics.

 

14. The human resources director has said that he
would like to introduce a new working system.

15. In recent years governments in the UK have paid
increasing attention to the rote of small businesses in the
economy.

The Past Perfect Tense

1. She said she had never been to Italy.

2. By the 1930s the birth rate in Britain had fallen to less
than one half the rate experienced during the nineteenth
century.

3. I suggested meeting again after we had read the pro­
posals.

4. When the company joined the Yew York stock mar­
ket, it had already been on the London market for 5 years.

5. Once the MD had formulated a new direction for the
company, he wasted no time in putting it into effect.

6. It had been a tough winter. Three senior managers
had left the company when John Smith took over.

7. The MD reported that the company had had a good year.

8. As soon as we had installed the new line, productivi­
ty went up.

The Future Perfect Tense 1. I will have finished all this typing by 5 p.m. 2. He will have walked to school before you finish your breakfast.

 

3. Before 5.00 he will have finished all the chores.

4. He will have left by the time we get there.

5. By then I shall have collected the last cent of what
he owes.

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

1. The demand for bread has been declining in Western
Europe for several years.

2. The drift of the population and employment to the
suburbs has been going on for a long time.

3. If the general price level has been changing during
the period under consideration, the figures recorded for the
different years will have to be adjusted to take account of the
price changes.

4. We have been developing this product for three years.

5. Sales have been falling recently.

6. We have been testing five new applications since the
beginning of the year.

7. She has been living in Seattle for 6 years.

8. He has been walking to school for several years now.

9. In recent years a large volume of short-term capital
or 'hot money' has been moving from one country to anoth­
er seeking greater security or higher interest rates.

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

1. He had been walking to school before his father
bought him a bicycle.

2. Carol had been working very hard, so her doctor told
her to take a vacation.

3. We had been planning to vacation in Pennsylvania but
changed our minds when so much of it got badly flooded.

The Future Perfect Continuous Tense 1. He will have been riding his bike to school for two years by the time he graduates in June.

221

 

2. On Christmas Eve our family will have been living in
Chicago for 20 years;

3. When Mr. Smith retires next week, he will have been
working for our firm for 30 years.

The Passive Voice

1. Most government securities are marketable and may be bought and sold on the Stock Exchange.

2. The precious metals were first used as money on the
basis of weight.

3. Many books are read by few people.

4. The answer was known to all of us.

5. It is assumed that he will announce his candidacy soon.

6. She was given some bad advice about selecting courses.

7. At the end of the summer they will have been married
for 10 years.

8. This question was raised at the last meeting and no
conclusion was reached then.

9. At this stage the raw materials are loaded into this
container.

 

10. A personnel manager has now been appointed.

11. These products have been designed by a special
team.

12. Protective clothing must be worn at all times.

13. Based on the total figure, it appears that an error was
made in the budget.

14. The price of a product is determined by the interac­
tion of demand and supply.

15. Raw materials and agricultural products are usually
sold in open markets, where the influence of cost on supply
is much less pronounced.

16. An industry which is being increasingly mechanised
may be employing less labour but increasing its output.

17. The gradual trend towards larger enterprises has not
been confined to manufacturing industry.

 

18. Each individual firm may obtain its components
and other requirements at relatively low cost because they
are being mass produced for the industry.

19. Units of production are officially referred to as
establishments.

20. When the various statutory documents have been
submitted to the register and have been duly accepted by
him, he will issue a Certificate of the corporation which
bestows upon the company a separate legal identity.

21. The ordinary shareholder is entitled to the residue of
profits after all other claims have been met.

22. The ordinary share capital of a company is usually
referred to as the equity of the company.

23. Prices are determined by supply and demand and
the willingness to buy and sell is subject to many influences.

24. Countries are often described as underpopulated or
overpopulated.

 

25. The output of agricultural products is seriously
affected by variations in weather conditions.

26. The management knew what prices were being
asked for the commodity in every part of the market.

27. The legal control of monopoly has been substantial­
ly extended and modified since the first legislation in 1948.

28. If we assume that the stock of capital is being
increased relative to the stocks of the other factors of pro­
duction, the returns to capital will be diminishing.

The Participle 1

A. 1. A country wishing to limit its population may dis­courage immigration and encourage emigration.

2. Increasing concern has been expressed about the
continued growth in world population.

3. If land is defined as the total surface area of the plan­
et, including oceans, lakes and rivers, than its total quantity
is fixed.

4. The persons forming a company are required to sub­
mit several documents to the Registrar of Companies.

5. Loan capital is more appropriate to firms operating in
stable markets.

6. In addition, the University will continue to have
graduate students working with them on research projects.

7. Industries producing steel, paper and chemicals
require very large quantities of water and tend to be found
near rivers.

8. With increasing numbers entering the working popu­
lation, expanding industries will have little trouble in
recruiting labour.

9. In advanced capitalist societies, advertising is a pow­
erful instrument affecting demand in many markets.

8. 1. Having explored the possible relationship between capacity and expected output, we now examine the behav­iour of costs as actual output changes.

2. Having examined the relationships between outputs
and costs, we now show how the behaviour of cost may be
reflected in the supply curve.

3. Having learnt the first law of supply and demand (i.e.
more is demanded at lower prices), many students then
automaticaily associate an increase in price with a fall in the
quantity demanded and vice versa.

4. Having obtained the necessary results, we stopped
our experimental work.

5. Having calculated the programme, he paid attention
to possible changes.

6. Having been repaired, the device began working
much better.

The Absolute Participle Construction

1. Other things being equal, an increase in wage rates will increase the cost of labour relative to the costs of the other factors.

 

2. The production of the Liberty ships showed similar
effects, the first taking many months to build and the last
only three days.

3. In order to simplify the analysis we can consider two
firms, one being representative of high-cost producers and
the other of low-cost producers.

4. Most industries make use of a variety of machines,
each machine carrying out a different operation.

5. The principle of action being rather simple, the new
device was widely used for different purposes.

6. The selling price must relate to the production cost,
which in turn, depends on the quantity sold, this quantity
being dependent upon the sales price.

7. It being too late, they decided to stop working.

8. Other things being equal, the demand for a commod­
ity will tend to vary directly as the price of its substitute.

9. The installation was atomised last year, its capacity
rising by 20 per cent.

 

10. All the problems having been solved, they went home.

11. The goods having been loaded, the dockworkers left
the port.

12. Member nations are required to subscribe to the
capital stock of the World Bank, each being given a quota
which is related to the member's national income and posi­
tion in the world trade.

The Participle 2

1. The quantity of labour derived from a given stock of
population depends upon several factors.

2. Put simply, a business process is the set of activities
performed to serve a customer.

3. Taxes placed on goods and services are known as
indirect taxes as opposed to direct taxes which are placed on
income and wealth.

4. The information obtained is very valuable.

224_________________________________________________________

5. Data transmitted during flight are usually provided to
the experimenter on magnetic tape.

6. The house restored by the Johnsons is quite unusual.

7. Exhausted from the long hike, he decided not to go
to the party.

The Gerund

1. Discounting is the process of buying a security for less
than its face value.

2. So far as temperature is concerned, Britain is fortu­
nate in having wanner winds than any other district in the
same latitude.

3. We discussed opening a new business.

4. He risks loosing all of his money.

5. His taking part in the development of the new system
was a great help to us.

6. We knew nothing about his being sent to London.

7. We knew nothing about his having been sent to
London.

8. I heard of the experiment having been started last
month.

9. The control of the money supply is probably one of
the most important instruments for regulating total demand
in an economy.

 

10. Funding is the way of reducing the supplies of liquid
assets available to the banking system.

11. By increasing the minimum deposit and reducing the
period allowed for repayment, the government has a quick-
acting method of reducing the demand for consumer durables.

12. The increase in government spending and borrow­
ing will have some effect on the rate of interest.

13. Most Western countries have experienced a sharp
slowing in the rate of population growth in recent years.

14. We have succeeded in entering a new competitive
market.

The Infinitive

1. The purpose of each business process is to offer each
customer the right product or service.

2. More than 200 years ago, the economist Adam Smith
formulated a theory to describe industrial practices that
were already centuries old.

3. Man has for a long time known that complicated
things are easier to understand if they are visualized in some
way, not just described in books.

4. There are nation-wide schemes to encourage indus­
trial investment.

5. To obtain a Stock Exchange listing, a company must
have at least 25 per cent of its shares held by public.

6. In order to create a supply of loans, people with the
necessary financial resources have to be persuaded to loan.

 

7. Efforts to increase the productive capacity of the
poorer nations will only be effective if these nations are able
to increase their exports.

8. The employers agreed to accept the terms of the
pay deal.

9. At the last moment they decided not to continue with
the negotiations.

10. It is important to carry out these changes as quickly

11. To encourage our employers to develop their skills is
one of the prime concerns of management.

12. To enter this market requires a lot of hard work.

13. We have decided not to advertise this position, but
to recruit internally.

14. I am glad to inform you that you have been successful.

15. It is impossible for us to accept these terms.

16. We would like to extend our overdraft facilities.

17. The sales director claimed to have found three new
customers.

18. Wage increases have helped (to) push up prices.

226

 

19. After the acquisition they didn't dare (to) replace
the whole management team immediately.

20. The advanced countries provide technical experts to
advise and assist the developing countries in their efforts to
achieve growth.

21. Once the volume of goods to be distributed reaches
a certain point, the firm may be able to reduce its costs by
establishing its own distribution fleet instead of hiring trans­
port service.

22. Selling in bulk may enable savings to be made in
invoicing and other costs.

23. The equipment to be installed will need more mon­
itoring.

24. The engineers must test the system to be used.

25. The designers selected all the units to be tested in
the experiment.

26. The preceding discussion would seem to indicate
that there are substantial net advantages to be obtained from
increasing the size of the business unit.

27. Another fact to be borne in mind is that some of
these rations only apply to domestic output.

28. One of the fundamental decisions to be taken by
entrepreneurs concerns the geographical location of their
enterprises.

The Objective Infinitive Construction

1. We expect him to solve this problem.

2. I don't consider him to be a good manager.

3. 1 know her to have graduated from the university
three years ago.

4. The manager considers the results to be unsatisfactory.
5. I want him to leave.

6. We expect John to be elected.

7. We want them to introduce the changes as soon as
possible.

 

8. We expect interest rates to rise next week.

9. The scientists expect this effect to be relatively small.

The Subjective Infinitive Construction

A. 1. The new manager is said to work 12 hours a day.

2. The free market economy is said to be more flexible.

3. Three people are reported to have been injured in the
explosion.

4. The strike is expected to end soon.

5. Complementarity is said to exist when an increase in
the quantity of one product sold leads to an increase in the
demand of another product.

6. Consumers are assumed to wish to maximize their
utility of satisfaction.

7. Firms are assumed to maximize their short-run profits.

8. When an increase in the scale of production yields a
more than proportionate increase in output, the enterprise
is said to be experiencing economies of scale.

9. The train was supposed to arrive at 7 o'clock but it
was half an hour late.

 

10. Many people are reported to be homeless after the floods.

11. The building is reported to have been damaged by fire.

12. The company is said to be losing a lot of money.

13. Goods which are close substitutes for one another
are said to be in competitive demand.

14. A good is said to be in composite demand when it is
demanded for several different uses.

15. The capitalist system is said to be based upon the
principle of competition.

 

16. Consumers are assumed to maximize the satisfac­
tion derived from the goods and services that they buy.

17. Firms are assumed to know what quantity of each
product they would sell.

18. Consumers are assumed to be aware of all the goods
and services they could buy.

228_____________________________________________________

19. The total value of international movements of capi­tal is thought to be at least ten times the value of world trade in goods and services.

B. 1. A small firm is likely to be specialising in one product.

2. The larger firm is likely to have a diversified market
structure.

3. An increase in the output of capital goods is likely to
mean that the current consumption of goods and services is
less than it might have been.

4. 'Ownership' of labour is likely to be highly unpopu­
lar politically.

5. The limit to output is most likely to be determined by
the quantity of capital inputs.

6. The balance is most likely to swing towards installing
additional capacity under the following circumstances.

7. The larger firm is more likely to be able to employ
buyers who are experienced in buying particular products.

8. Horizontal growth is unlikely to give rise to those
risk-bearing economies which depend upon a diversified
range of activities.

9. Diversified growth is more likely to give rise to risk-
bearing economies.

 

10. In fact demand is likely to be highly elastic when the
market is depressed.

11. Even if market demand is inelastic, the demand for
the product of a firm which increases its price is likely to be
highly elastic.

12. The reasons for this is that rival suppliers are likely
to maintain their prices in the hope of attracting customers
from the higher-price firm.

13. Price reductions are most likely to occur if they can
be concealed from competitors.

14. Price is likely to be held stable during the pricing
season over quite a wide range of output, both greater and
less than expected.

229

15. If the original profit margin was not considered to
be adequate and demand is less than expected the response
is likely to be as before.

16. But when demand turns out to be greater than
expected suppliers are likely to take the opportunity to
improve their profit margins.

17. As we noted above, firms are likely to be most con­
fident about rivals' responses, i.e. to be able to exercise con­
trol over price, in highly concentrated industries.

18. Initially price is unlikely to fall in response to a fall
in demand.

19. The effect on an increase in output is likely to be
most pronounced when the economy as a whole is operat­
ing near full capacity.

20. Each of these different machines is likely to have a
different capacity.

C. 1. The aim of convertibility proved difficult to achieve.

2. The management seem to be moving in the right direction.

3. The two sides appear to have solved the problem.

4. Since that time the market share of these larger com­
panies does not seem to have increased.

5. These studies seem to indicate that the size structure
of plants in British industry is such that they are able to take
advantage of such scale economies as are available.

 

6. Many mergers appear to have been motivated by a
desire to increase market power rather than by a desire to
increase efficiency.

7. The poor performance of the collective farms in the
USSR in the early years of centralization appears to have
been an important factor in the decision to maintain some
private ownership of land.

The Conditionals

1. If the assumptions are incorrect or inadequate, the model might yield incorrect or inadequate predictions.

230__________________________________________

2. If incomes are rising, the demand for most goods and
services will tend to increase.

3. If money incomes rise by 5 percent, but over the same
period prices rise by 10 per cent, real income will have fallen.

4. If the price of butter fell, the demand for margarine
would probably fall.

5. If the supplier of such a commodity were to raise the
price, many buyers would turn to the close substitutes.

6. If production can be expanded very easily and
quickly in response to an increase in demand, supply will
be elastic.

7. If demand were inelastic, the movement of the sup­
ply curve would lead to a relatively large fall in price and a
relatively small increase in the quantity demanded.

8. Provided the Earth's mass were twice as great as it is,
it would attract any body twice as strongly.

9. Were I in the city, I would attend his lecture.

 

10. Had he pointed out all the drawbacks, we should
have found ways to solve the problem.

11. Had the agent defaulted on the agreement, we
would have taken legal action.

12. If our supplier continues to miss deadlines, we must
look for alternatives.

13. We might beat the price increases, if we made the
investment now.

14. If the consultant had done more careful research, he
would have identified the gap in the market.

15. We would be very grateful if you would send us the
information as soon as possible.

16. If the market for our products expands, we will have
a 20 per cent increase in turnover next year.

17. If the radicals haven't made the government more
responsible, they have wasted their time.

18. if 1 had known that I wouldn't have said anything.

19. Had I known that I wouldn't have said anything.

231

20. Should the guests come earlier, no one will be here
to greet them.

21. If we increase production volume, we will benefit
from a more economic batch size.

22. They can ensure the quantity of the product if they
train the supervisors.

23. We would have to reduce our workforce if the bank
refused to extend our credit.

24. If the government hadn't introduced the tax incentive
scheme, we would have faced serious financial difficulties.

25. If a government cuts taxation, it gains a lot of pop­
ular support.

26. Provided we don't increase expenditure, we will def­
initely reach break-even point within six months.

27. If wages rise, unemployment will increase.

28. If we don't install new equipment, we will become
uncompetitive.

29. If we installed new equipment, we would become
more competitive.

30. If we had installed the equipment, we would have
become more competitive.

31. In case we don't reach the break-even point within
six months, we will have to ask for another bank loan.

32. Unless we reach break-even point within six
months, we will have to ask for an other bank loan.

33. Should the agent default on the agreement, we will
take legal action.

34. Were the agent to default on the agreement, we
would take legal action.

The Reported Speech

1. He says that next year will be a difficult year.

2. He promised that the machine would be installed the
following Wednesday.

3. He said that they had reached the agreement

4. He told them to be prepared for redundancies.

5. He said that our prices were too high.

6. He said that he had signed the contract.

7. He said that business would improve.

8. He said he would read the report before the next
meeting.

9. She told them that she would read the report before
Tuesday.

 

10. He demanded that the threat of legal action be removed.

11. She asked when the new programme would start.

12. He asked if anyone wanted to take early retirement.

Can, Could

1. Our new bottling machine can fill 1000 bottles per hour.

2. When I worked for ABC Group, only the purchasing
manager could authorise the purchase of office equipment.

 

3. It's a company rule-personnel can't smoke in the
company canteen.

4. Can I help you?

5. Can I speak to Paul Griffits, please? — I'm afraid you
can't. He is in a meeting at the moment.

6. If you don't deliver today, we can certainly deliver
tomorrow.

7. We can certainly review the manning levels in this
meeting.

8. Next year, after Peter Barnes finishes his training pro­
gramme, he can take over the control function.

9. When I was area manager, I could visit five customers
a day.

 

10. The components arrived three weeks late. It wasn't
their fault. Those problems could happen to anybody.

11. We have no idea what can happen to their next
delivery.

12. They sent the goods two weeks ago; so, they could
have arrived by now.

 

13. There was no delivery yesterday; so they couldn't
have arrived then.

14. Only employees can buy produce from the compa­
ny shops.