A complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordinating.

 

25. Translation: Basic Definitions

Translation is a human activity known since ancient times and an interpreter or translator is among the oldest professions dating back to the biblical era and earlier. Usually when people speak about translation or even write about it in special literature they are seldom specific about the meaning. The presumption is quite natural – everybody thinks that they understand the meaning of the word. However, to describe and study translation intuitive understanding is not sufficient –what one needs is a definition.

In professor Fyodorov’s definition translation is a recreation of the original by means of another language with the retained unity of form and content. It is a form of creative activity in the sphere of language. In this connection the task set before the translator is not word for word rendering of the original but its creative reproduction by means of another language. The aim of the translation is to acquaint the reader who does not know the language of the original with the content of the latter. To translate the original is to express its content exactly and completely by means of another language retaining the unity of form and content.

Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Ttranslation may be defined as the transfer of meaning from one language to another. Translation takes place in writing and interpreting is its oral counterpart. The two terms are often confused. At its best, a successful translation should read as if it were originally written in the new language.

 

 

26. Goals of Translation

Translators may be called upon to translate just about anything. Any text, message, fragment of a message or code element may need to be translated. A comprehensive list of materials that are commonly translated would include software programs, video games, software on-line help systems, insurance contracts, extradition proceedings, film sub-titles, songs, film dialogues, all kinds of soundtracks, drug dosage instructions, obituaries, mail catalogues, mobile phone instructions, marketing certificate applications, sales contracts, health certificates, user manuals (millions of them), parts lists, commercial statistics, registry office certificates, educational qualifications and certificates, confidential diplomatic memos, advertising leaflets, adverts, magazine and newspaper articles, alarms system documentation, customer complaints, the faxed minutes of a meeting before the next session starts, poems, novels, short stories, biographies, bills of lading and customs forms, post card titles, medical files, extradition requests, technical memos, annual reports, letters to the shareholders, DNA analysis reports, machine user instructions, patents, and many more. Nor is language-based material the only type of material that comes up for translation: graphic images, alphanumerical data, video graphic material or pictograms, computer code or other types of code, sound, noise, signs, colors and signals, may also have to be “translated” into other codes or languages. The translator may for instance have to inform the client that a color which is a symbol of happiness and optimism in European cultures is a symbol of death in certain Far-Eastern cultures, and that it may be worth changing the graphic chart for the documentation accordingly. The list of materials that the translator may be called on to “translate” is endless.

 

 

27. The Functions of Translation

Translation plays a very significant role in cultural development of mankind. It is only on the basis of translation that communication and mutual intercourse and interchange between peoples speaking different languages become possible. Not a single contact at the international level can be established or maintained without the help of translators or interpreters. Different international bodies (E.E.C. – European economic Council, the I.M.F. – the International Monetary Fund or the United nations Organization) can function smoothly only thanks to the army of translators and interpreters representing different states and working in many different national languages. Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up with the up-to-date development and progress in the modern world thanks to the everyday translating of scientific and technical matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. Thus we may outline the main functions of translation as following:

Scientific and technical – it fosters the progress in various fields of science and technology in all countries of the world.

Social and political - it provides the dissemination of political ideas, of social and political knowledge in different field of science.

Cultural - it is also a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching national literatures and cultures.

Linguistic - it promotes the enrichment of lexicon and of the means of expression in the target language.

Educational – one of the means of teaching foreign language

 

 

28. The Objectives of the Theory of Translation

Practical translation is a creative process that should be distinguished from the theory of translation as a science. The theory of translations is rather young and belongs to linguistic disciplines. As a part of philology it is inconceivable without the organic combination of both linguistic and literary methods.

The objectives of the theory of translation are

to provide an overview of translation studies as an academic discipline.

to present translation theory as a component of this discipline and outline some of the issues it aims to address.

to outline the various perspectives from which different scholars have attempted to develop a theory of translation.

to formulate aims and tasks of rendering,

to show ways and means of solving problems of translation,

to establish lexical, grammatical and stylistic correspondences and divergences between two languages

to point out possible ways of their rendering from one language into the other.

But one has to remember that theory of translation is not and has nothing to do with a collection of recommendations how to translate. Very often the translator follows some advice the science offers but most cases in translation practice require quite original and individual solutions. The translator’s success depends on his proficiency and theoretical knowledge, as well as his ability to use the accumulated practical experience and achievements of the past.

29. The Earliest Mentions of Translation

Word translation in general and European translation in particular has a ling and praiseworthy tradition. The earliest mention of translation goes back to aprx the year 3000 BC in ancient Egypt where the interpreters or dragomans were employed to help in carrying on trade with the neighboring country of India. The dragomans were employed to accompany the trade caravans and help in negotiating, selling and buying the necessary goods for Egypt. Also in those ancient times (2400 BC), the Assyrian emperor Sargon of the city Akkada (Mesopotamia), is known to have circulated his order of the day translated into some lands of the subject countries. In 2100 BC, Babylon translations are known to have been performed into some lang-s including Greek, Armenian, Egyptian. The city of Babylon in those times was a center of polyglots where translations were accomplished in several lang-s. There existed the first known bilingual (Sumerian-Akkadian) and multilingual dictionaries. In 1800 BC, in Assyria there was already smth of a board of translators headed by the chief translator/interpreter, a certain GIKI. The first trade agreement is known to have beeen signed in two lang-s between Egypt and its neighbour Nubia in 1200BC.

Interpreters and tr-s of the Persian and Indian lang-s are known to have been employed in Europe by Alexandr the Great, the emperor of Makedonia, during the military campaign against Persia and India. Romans in their numerous wars also employed interpreters.

The history of European translation goes back to 280 BC with the translation of some excerpts of the Holy Scriptures. The real history of translation into European lang-s is supposed to begun in 250 BC in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. The local leaders of the Jewish community decided to translate the Old Testament from Aramaic (their lang.), which was no longer understood, into ancient Greek, which became their spoken language. 72 learned Jews translated separately for 70 days and their translations became to be identical. This translation was called Septuagint, The bulk of Septuagint is known today to have been word-for –word translation (slavishly literal).

Later on, with the political, economic and military strengthening of the Roman Empire, more and more translations were performed from Greek into Latin. Roman-Greel scholar Livius Andronicus made a successful translation of Homer’s poems, the Iliad and Odyssey in 240 BC, it became the foundation for the rich Latin belles-letters traditions.

Marcus Cicero became a famous in Rome by his literary translations and for principles of sense-to-sense translations (main aim of translator –to convey the sense and the style of the source language text).

 

 

30. Translation and Interpretation during the Middle Ages

Word-for –word translation was widely practiced in the famous Toledo school in the central Spain (12-13centuries) where the outstanding translator of that country Gerhard of Cremona worked. Among the works translated there were scientific (as alchemy), mathematical works (on arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, astronomy), philosophy, medicine. However, in Northern Spain another school of translation functioned where “sense-to-sense” approach was predominant and translations there were mostly performed from Greek into Hebrew (usually through Arabic). These same two principles, according to Solomon Ibn Ajjub, one of the greatest authorities on translation in the middle of the 13^th century, were practiced in the southern Italian school (Rome), which had fallen under a strong Arabic cultural influence as well. Secular works were translated in this school with many omissions, additions, and paraphrases of their texts, which changed the original works beyond recognition.

King Alfred the Great took an active part in translating manuals, chronicles and other works from ancient languages and thus helped in the spiritual and cultural elevation of his people. His noble was continued by the abbot and the author Aelfric (955-1020) who would paraphrase some parts of the work while translating and adding his own part. Yet, Aelfric would consider this technique of rendering as a sense-to-sense translation. Abbot Aelfric himself admitted, that in his translation of the Latin work under the English title The Shepherd’s Book, he performed it “sometimes word-by-word” and “sometimes according to the sense”, in free translation. These same 2 approaches to translation were also characteristic of other European countries of the Middle Ages.

No less intensively practiced alongside of the free sense-to-sense rendering in Europe during the Middle Ages was the strict word-for-word translation. Its domain of employment was naturally restricted to ecclesiastic and philosophic works. By this method the first ever translation of the Bible from Latin into English was accomplished in 1377-1380 by the religious scientist and reformer John Wycliffe.

 

 

31. Translation during the Renaissance Period

The Renaissance period which started in the 14^th century in Italy was marked by great discoveries and inventions. The most significant one – invention of the moving printing press by the German Gutenberg. It caused the quick growth of the amount of printed books and at the same time – readers. And the demand for books in its turn called forth an increase in translation activity, fiction translations. Alongside of this, the birth and strengthening of national European states raised the status of national languages and reduced the role of Latin. Translations began to be performed not only from classic languages but also from and into European languages. These real changes resulted in a wider use of faithful as well as free translations which started almost in one and the same time in France, Germany and England.

Germany - Albrecht von Eyb (translator of Plautu’s works), Heinrich Steinhowel (translator of Aesop’s and Boccaccio’s works)

France – Joachim du Bellay (translator of Ovid’s poems)-new free/unrestricted freedom of translation, Etienne Dolet – sense-to-sense translation, Claude Fontaine

 

 

32. Translation during the Period of Classicism and Enlightenment (просвітництво)

Despite the official condemnation and even execution of some adherents of the idea of sense-to-sense translation, the controversy between the supporters of these 3 approaches to translating continued all through the period of Classicism and Enlightment.

These approaches were already mentions as follows:

1.The ancient “strict and truthful” word-for-word translation of ecclesiastic(the Septuagint) and philosophic works. The basic principles – in the transl-s of the Bible by Luther and Tyndale.