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In the second example the prepositional phrase in Rome is an adverbial modifier as the noun denotes an inanimate object and the question is: Where had he been born?

When the noun in the prepositional phrase denotes an inanimate object, very often two ways of analysis are possible.

His wife was sitting before a very little fire. (Galsworthy)

The prepositional phrase before a very littlefire can be treated either as an adverbial modifier or an object.

2. An attribute and an adverbial modifier of place.

I thought you were going to a party at the club. (Douglas) The party will take place at the club.

In the first example at the club is an attribute as it modifies a noun. It answers the question: What party?

In the second sentence the same prepositional phrase modifies a verbal group, consequently it is an adverbial modifier of place.

These examples do not cover all the dubious cases in analysis, they only serve to show that there are many border-line cases.

 

 

Detached (Loose) Parts of the Sentence

§ 36. Detached parts of the sentence are those secondary parts which assume a certain grammatical and semantic independence. This phenomenon is due to their loose connection with the words tno modify.

Loose connection may be due to the position of these words, the way they are expressed, their meaning, or the speaker's desire to make them prominent. In spoken language detached parts of the sentence are marked by intonation, pauses, and special stress; in written language they are generally separated by commas or dashes. Adverbial modi­fiers, attributes, and prepositional indirect objects may stand in loose connection to the word they modify, i. e. they may be detached (loose) parts of the sentence. The adverbial modifier is more apt to stand in loose connection than any other part of the sentence.

 

§ 37. The detached adverbial modifier.

Any part of speech used in the function of an adverbial modifier may be detached, which accounts for the comma that separates it from the rest of the sentence.

The Corporal lit a pipe, carefully, because the enemy was close. (Heym)

In her excitement, Maria jammed the bedroom-door together. (London)

One summer, during a brief vacation at Knocke, his visit had come to the notice of Harrington Brande... (Cronin)

An adverbial modifier expressed by the Nominative Absolute Par­ticipial Construction or any other absolute construction is generally detached.

The train coming in a minute later, the two brothers parted and entered their respective compartments. (Galsworthy) With his face buried in his hands, he did not see her enter the room. (Keating)

Of all the kinds of adverbial modifiers that of attendant circum­stances is most apt to become detached.

They drove on, without speaking again, to Stanhope Gate. (Galsworthy)

He came in, with a large parcel under his arm. (Collins) She had moved through its gaudiness and pettiness and glamour, her head high and her lashes low, clothed in an immaculate dignity. (Sanborn)

Nicholas lay there, his brow still contracted, filled with perplexity and confusion. (Cronin)

The kitchen became the sitting room, she and Robert eatino their meals before the warm stove. (Lawrence)

 

§ 38. The detached attribute.

A detached attribute can modify not only a common noun as an ordinary attribute does but also a proper noun and a pronoun.

The crowd was now in constant uproar, yelling, gesticulating, beseeching and reviling with Latin intensity. (Cronin) There was a star-like quality about Judice, radiant and unreach­able. (Sanborn)

It was a wide white building, one storey high. (Sanborn) Dumb with amazement, Mr. Gradgrind crossed to the spot where his family was thus disgraced. (Dickens) Stout, middle-aged, full of energy, she bustled backwards and forwards from the kitchen to the dining-room. (Prichard)

 

§ 39. The detached object.

The prepositional indirect object is often detached.

She does not change — except her hair. (Galsworthy)

A silver tray was brought, with German plums. (Galsworthy)

Huckleberry Finn was there, with his dead cat. (Twain)

 

 

The Independent Elements of the Sentence

 

§ 40. The independent elements of the sentence are words and word-groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence. They are:

1. Interjections, such as ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness, gra-
cious, good heavens, etc.

Oh, if I only knew what a dreadful thing it is to be clean, I'd never come. (Shaw)

"Oh gracious me! that innocent Toots," returned Susan hysteri­cally. (Dickens)

2. Direct address.

Good morning, sweet child! (Douglas) Don't be tiresome, Marcellus! (Douglas)

3. Parenthesis.

A parenthesis either shows the speaker's attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence or connects a given sentence with another one, or summarizes that which is said in the sentence. A paren­thesis is connected with the rest of the sentence rather semantically than grammatically. No question can be put to it. Very often it is detached from the rest of the sentence and consequently it is often separated from it by commas or dashes.

He had probably never occupied a chair with a fuller sense of embarrassment. (Galsworthy)

To be sure, Morris had treated her badly of late. (Prichard) Unfortunately, it will be you who will have to explain that to him. (Heym)

But you shouldn't pay him to-night, anyway, you're his guest. (Galsworthy)

Besides, you know, I'm a pensioner, anyway. That makes me 65, to begin with. (Maltz)

Speaking seriously though, Kit... it's very good and thoughtful, and like you, to do this. (Dickens)

 

§ 41. A parenthesis can be expressed by:

1. Modal words, such as indeed, certainly, assuredly, decidedly, in
fact, truly, naturally, surely, actually, possibly, perhaps, evidently, obvi-
ously, maybe.

Evidently, he was not a man, he must be some other kind of animal. (Shaw)

Luckily, poor dear Roger had been spared this dreadful anxiety. (Galsworthy)

2. Adverbs which to a certain extent serve as connectives, such
as firstly, secondly, finally, thus, consequently, then, anyway, moreover,
besides, still, yet, nevertheless, otherwise, notwithstanding, therefore,
etc.

He mightn't like it. Besides, uncle Soames wants to get back, I suppose. (Galsworthy)

He was losing money. Furthermore, he had sweated to make the truck comfortable for them. (Maltz)

3. Prepositional phrases, such as in a word, in truth, in my opinion,
in short, by the by, on the one hand, on the contrary, at least, etc.

Everybody has his own problem. Mine is practically worthless for instance. (Maltz)

By the way, Harry, I have often meant to ask you: is she your mother's sister or your father's? (Shaw)

4. Infinitive and participial phrases, such as to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with, generally speaking, strictly speaking, etc.

Sarah, my dear, comparatively speaking, you're safe. (Dick­ens)

To tell you the truth, I don't want to go there.

 

 

Sentences with Homogeneous Parts

Two or more parts of the sentence having the same function and referring to the same part of the sentence are called homogeneous parts of the sentence. They are linked either by means of coordinating conjunctions or asyndetically.

There can be:

1. Two or more homogeneous subjects to one predicate.

From the edge of the bed came a ripple and whisper. (Wells) To her extreme relief, her father and sisters appeared. (Dash-wood)

2. Two or more homogeneous predicates to one subject.

(a) Simple predicates.

That gentleman started, stared, retreated, rubbed his eyes,

stared again and finally shouted: "Stop, stop!" (Dickens)

(b) A compound verbal modal predicate with homogeneous parts
within it.

Thousands of sheets must be printed, dried, cut. (Heym)

(c) A compound verbal aspect predicate with homogeneous parts
within it.

First he began to understand and then to speak English.

(d) A compound nominal predicate with several predicatives
within it.

The sky was clear, remote, and empty. (Wells)

The above mentioned cases do not cover all possible cases of ho­mogeneous predicates.

3. Two or more attributes, objects, or adverbial modifiers to one part of the sentence.

The unlighted, unused room behind the sitting-room seemed to absorb and even intensify the changing moods of the house. (Bennett) (ATTRIBUTES)

He could imitate other people's speech, their accent, their mannerisms, their tone. (Heym) (DIRECT OBJECTS) He talked of Spain, his sunstroke, Val's horses, their father's health. (Galsworthy) (PREPOSITIONAL INDIRECT OBJECTS) She extended a slender hand and smiled pleasantly and natu­rally. (Wells) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS OF MANNER) But I saw nothing moving, in earth or sky. (Wells) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS OF PLACE)

Chapter XVI

WORD ORDER

 

 

§ 1. Word order in English is of much greater importance than in Russian. Due to the wealth of inflexions word order in Russian is rather free as the inflexions show the function of each word in a sen­tence. As English words have hardly any inflexions and their relation to each other is shown by their place in the sentence and not by their form, word order in English is fixed. We cannot change the position of different parts of the sentence at will, especially that of the subject and the object.

To illustrate this we will try to change the order of words in the following sentence.

Mrs. Winter sent the little boy with a message to the next village one December day. (Hardy)

If we put the direct object in the first place and the subject in the third, the meaning of the sentence will change altogether because the object, being placed at the head of the sentence, becomes the subject and the subject, being placed after the predicate, becomes the object.

The little boy sent Mrs. Winter with a message to the next village one December day.

In Russian such changes of word order are in most cases possible.

Моя сестра видела замечательный фильм в Москве. Замечательный фильм видела моя сестра в Москве.

So due to the absence of case distinctions word order is practically the only means of distinguishing between the subject and the direct object.

The above sentence may serve as an example of direct word order in an English declarative sentence:

(1) the subject;

(2) the predicate;

(3) objects;

(4) adverbial modifiers.

§ 2. Inverted order of words.

The order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate is called inverted order or inversion.

Are you from Canada?

 

§ 3. Certain types of sentences require the inverted order of words. These are:

1. Interrogative sentences. In most of them the inversion is partial as only part of the predicate is placed before the subject, viz. the auxi­liary or modal verb.

Where did they find her? (Du Maurier) Can I show you my library? (Greene)

With the verb to have (expressing possession) the auxiliary verb do is used.

Do you have a car?

(The usage of to have without the auxiliary verb is nowadays con­fined to very formal style.)

The whole predicate is placed before the subject when it is expressed by the verb to be.

Is he at home?

■ --------------------------------------------------------

N о t e 1. No inversion is used when the interrogative word is the subject of the sentence or an attribute to the subject: Who is in the room? Who speaks English here? What photos are lying on the table?

N о t e 2. No inversion can be used in general questions in informal style: You see her often? You've got the keys?

 

2. Sentences introduced by there.

There is nothing marvellous in what Jam is going to relate. (Dickens)

Into the lane where he sat there opened three or four garden gates. (Dickens)

3. Compound sentences, their second part beginning with so or
Neither.

"Most of these military men are good shots," observed Mr. Snod-grass, calmly; "but so are you, ain't you?" (Dickens) Their parents, Mr. and Mrs. R., escaped unhurt, so did three of their sons. (Daily Worker)

4. Simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish. Be it so!

Gentle reader, may you never feel what I then felt. May your eyes never shed such stormy, heart-wrung tears as poured from mine. (Ch. Bronte)

 

§ 4. The inverted order of words is widely used when a word or a group of words is put in a prominent position, i. e. when it either opens the sentence or is withdrawn to the end of the sentence so as to produce a greater effect. So word order often becomes a means of emphasis, thus acquiring a stylistic function.

In this case inversion is not due to the structure of the sentence but to the author's wish to produce a certain stylistic effect.

1. Inversion occurs when an adverbial modifier opens the sen­tence.

Here we must distinguish the following cases:

(a) Adverbial modifiers expressed by a phrase or phrases open the
sentence, and the subject often has a lengthy modifier.

In an open barouche, the horses of which had been taken out, stood a stout old gentleman in a blue coat and bright buttons. (Dickens)

On a chair — a shiny leather chair displaying its horsehair through a hole in the top left hand corner — stood a black despatch case. (Galsworthy)

(b) An adverbial modifier with a negative meaning opens the sen-
tence. Here belong such adverbial modifiers as: in vain, never, little,
etc. In this case the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does noi
contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

In vain did the eager Luffey and the enthusiastic struggl^erS

do all that skill and experience could suggest. (Dickens) Little had I dreamed, when I pressed my face longingly agains Miss Minns's low greenish window-panes, that I would so soon have the honour to be her guest. (Cronin)

Never before and never since, have I known such peace, such a sense of tranquil happiness. (Cronin)

(c) Adverbial modifiers expressed by such adverbs as so, thus, now,
then, etc. placed at the head of the sentence, if the subject is expressed
by a noun.

So wore the day away. (London)

Thus spoke Mr. Pickwick edging himself as near as possible to the portmanteau. (Dickens) Now ivas the moment to act.

Then across the evening stillness, broke a blood-curdling yelp,

and Montmorency left the boat. (Jerome)

If the subject is a pronoun inversion does not take place.

Thus he thought and crumpled up and sank down upon the wet earth. (London)

(d) Adverbial modifiers of manner expressed by adverbs placed at
the head of the sentence, may or may not cause inversion. In case of
inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain
either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Silently and patiently did the doctor bear all this. (Dickens) Dimly and darkly had the sombre shadows of a summer's night fallen upon all around, when they again reached Dingley Dell. (Dickens)

But:

And suddenly the moon appeared, young and tender, floating up on her back from behind a tree. (Galsworthy) Speedily that worthy gentleman appeared. (Dickens)

(f) An adverbial modifier preceded by so is placed at the head of the sentence.

So beautifully did she sing that the audience burst into ap­plause.

2. Inversion occurs when the emphatic particle only, the adverbs hardly, scarcely (correlated with the conjunction when), the adverb no sooner (correlated with the conjunction than), or the conjunction nor °Pen the sentence. If there is inversion the auxiliary do must be used if *he predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Only once did he meet his match in tennis.

In only one respect has there been a decided lack of progress

in the domain of medicine, that is in the time it takes to become a qualified practitioner. (Leacock)

I do not care to speak first. Nor do I desire to make trouble for another. (Cronin)

No sooner had Aunt Julie received this emblem of departure than a change came over her... (Galsworthy) Scarcely was one long task completed when a guard unlocked our door. (London)

3. Inversion occurs when the sentence begins with the word here
which is not an adverbial modifier of place but has some demonstra-
tive force.

"Here is my card, Sir," replied Mr. Pickwick. (Dickens) — «Вот моя визитная карточка, сэр», — ответил мистер Пиквик. Here comes my brother John. — Вот идет мой брат Джон.

If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun the order of words is direct.

"Here he is!" said Sam rising with great glee. (Dickens) — «Вот он!» — радостно сказал Сэм, вставая. "Here we are!" exclaimed that gentleman. (Dickens) — «Вот и мы!» — воскликнул этот джентльмен.

4. Inversion occurs when postpositions denoting direction open
the sentence and the subject is expressed by a noun. Here belong such
words as in, out, down, away, up, etc. This order of words makes the
speech especially lively.

Out went Mr. Pickwick's head again. (Dickens)

The wind carries their voices — away fly the sentences like little

narrow ribbons. (Mansfield)

Suddenly in bounced the landlady: "There's a letter for you, Miss Moss." (Mansfield)

But if the subject is a pronoun there is no inversion: Down he fell.

Her skirt flies up above her waist; she tries to beat it down, but it is no use — up it flies. (Mansfield)

5. inversion occurs when an object or an adverbial modify
expressed by a word-group with not a..., or many a... opens the sen-
tence.

In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Not a hansom did I meet with In all my drive. (London)

Not a hint, however, did she drop about sending me to school.

(Ch. Bronte)

Many a dun had she talked to and turned away from her fa­ther's door. (Thackeray)

Many a time had he watched him digging graves in the church­yard. (Dickens)

6. Inversion often occurs when a predicative expressed by an adjec-
tive or by a noun modified by an adjective or by the pronoun such opens
the sentence (in case the subject is a noun or an indefinite pronoun).

Violent was Mr. Welter's indignation as he was borne along. (Dickens)

Such is life, and we are but as grass that is cut down, and put into the oven and baked. (Jerome) Sweet was that evening. (Ch. Bronte)

Inversion is very common in clauses of concession where the predi­cative is followed by the conjunction as.

Great as was its influence upon individual souls, it did not seri­ously affect the main current of the life either of the church or of the nation. (Wakeman)

However, when the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the link verb follows the subject.

Bright eyes they were. (Dickens)

A strange place it was. (Dickens)

Starved and tired enough he was. (Ch. Bronte)

Miserable as he was on the steamer, a new misery came upon

him. (London)

7. Inversion is also found in conditional clauses introduced without
any conjunction when the predicate is expressed by was, were, had,
could or should.

Even ivere they absolutely hers, it would be a passing means to enrich herself. (Hardy)

He soon returned with fuuu enough fur haif-a-uuzen peupie and two bottles of wine — enough to last them for a day or more, should any emergency arise. (Hardy)

' ' ' раммагика лиг тиского языкл

Yates would have felt better, had the gesture of a few kind words to Thorpe been permitted him. (Heym)

It must be borne in mind that emphatic order does not necessari­ly mean inversion; emphasis may be also achieved by the prominent position of some part of the sentence without inversion, i. e. without placing the predicate before the subject.^[1]

Here we shall only mention a peculiar way of making almost any part of the sentence emphatic. This is achieved by placing it is or it was before the part of the sentence which is to be emphasized and a clause introduced by the relative pronoun who or that, by the conjunction that or without any connective after it.

So it's you that have disgraced the family. (Voynich) It is not in Mr. Rochester he is interested. (Ch. Bronte) Father appreciated him. It was on father's suggestion that he went to law college. (London)

 

§ 5. Position of the object.

The usual position of the object in declarative sentences is after the predicate (see Chapter XV, § 26). However, in exclamatory sentences the direct object may occupy the first place.

What wonderfully blue eyes you have, Ernest! (Wilde)

This position of the object generally does not cause inversion, except in poetry, high prose, and negative exclamatory sentences.

Thee would I spare — nay more — would save thee now! (Byron) Passage after passage did he explore, room after room did he peep into! (Dickens)

In declarative sentences the front position of the object serves the purpose of emphasis. In Russian this position of the object is common (e. g. Волейболом он увлекался в юности, а теперь играет только в теннис); in English it occurs but seldom.

A fearful voyage I had with such a monster in the vessel. (Ch. Bronte)

Honey she had in plenty out of her own hives. (Hardy)

As a rule this prominent position of the object causes no inversion except when the object is expressed by word-groups with not a... or many a... (see §4.5).

The direct object acquires some prominence when it is separated from the predicate by some secondary part of the sentence — generally an adverbial modifier or a prepositional indirect object. We may call this the back position of the object.

She produced from her pocket a most housewifely bunch of keys. (Ch. Bronte)

I had at heart a strange and anxious thought. (Ch. Bronte) Cowperwood smiled as he saw in the morning papers the an­nouncement of the passage of each ordinance granting him a franchise. (Dreiser)

As is seen from the above examples this occurs when the object has an attribute.

The front position of the indirect object in declarative sentences is rare. The prepositional indirect object is more common in this position, especially in colloquial English.

Of his love he would tell her nothing. (Voynich)

To Martin the future did not seem so dim. Success trembled just

before him. (London)

Sometimes the front position of the prepositional indirect object causes inversion.

To this circumstance may be attributed the fact that none of the letters reached my hand. (Dickens)

 

§ 6. Position of the attribute.

1. The usual place of the attribute expressed by an adjective, noun, pronoun, or participle is before the word it modifies.

What extraordinary ideas you have about the way to behave to a woman! (Wilde)

With most of such attributes the order in which they follow each °ther is generally free, i. e. it can be easily changed.

Amelia Sed'ey had such a kindly, smiling, tender, generous heart of her own as won the love of everybody who came near her. (Thackeray)

However, with some attributes the order in which they follow each other is more or less fixed.

Attributes denoting age, colour, material, and nationality come next to the noun modified.

Rawdon preferred the quiet little Belgian city to either of the more noisy capitals. (Thackeray).

Two years of married life had not lengthened her short dark chestnut hair. (Galsworthy)

When two or more attributes denoting age, colour, material, and nationality refer to the same noun the order is as follows:

 

various	age	colour	material	nationality
		red		Turkish	slippers
		black	lacy		dress
	old	blue			kimono
pleasant	young				man

 

E. g.

3 2

She had brought her a bright yellow spotted silk blouse and

з i

a purple Angora sweater. (M. Dickens)

It is interesting to note that the adjective little often corresponds to Russian diminutive suffixes in such words as паренек, братишка, ручка, комнатка. In this case as well as when little denotes age, it is placed immediately before the noun unless there are attributes denot­ing colour or nationality.

He was naked and painted blue and yellow in stripes — a jolly little chap. (Galsworthy)

He was a little like Jolly, but eager-looking and less formal.•• altogether a very interesting little brother. (Galsworthy)

But:

Mrs. Inchbare's unloveable hair clung fast round her head in wiry little yellow curls. (Collins)

A fortnight after it took place, he asked her where was her little French watch and chain she used to wear. (Thackeray)

II. Post-position of the attribute.

There are some cases when the post-position of the attribute is its normal place, i. e. when it is not emphatic.

1. Most adjectives in -able and -ible are generally placed after the
noun, especially when the noun is preceded by the adjective only or
an adjective in the superlative degree: sufferings unspeakable, the only
person visible, with all the solemnity possible, the most interesting thing
imaginable.

However, a few adjectives with the same suffixes stand before the noun they modify.

He is the only reasonable man here. She is a sensible little girl.

2. In some stock phrases the adjective is placed after the noun:

wealth untold — несметные богатства

from times immemorial — с незапамятных времен

generations unborn — грядущие поколения

court martial — военно-полевой суд

sum total — общая сумма

four years running — четыре года подряд

the first person singular — первое лицо единственного числа

the second person plural — второе лицо множественного

числа

3. The adjectives proper (собственно, как таковой) and present
(присутствующий) are placed after the noun.

We shan't find anything about sculpture in this book, it deals with architecture proper. — В этой книге мы не найдем ничего о скульптуре, она посвящена архитектуре как таковой. All the people present welcomed Paul Robeson enthusiasti­cally. — Все присутствующие восторженно приветствовали Поля Робсона.

These meanings of proper and present are not to be confused with the meanings of proper and present when used in pre-position, e о •

This is not a proper answer to a question of this kind. Our present task is to preserve peace in the world.

4. Attributes expressed by cardinal numerals denoting the place
of the object in a series always follow the noun modified. No article is
used in this case: page ten, tram number six, room two.

5. Adjectives stand after indefinite and negative pronouns.

I'd like to read something very interesting.

There is nothing extraordinary in her dress.

I'd like to speak with somebody very clever on the subject.

6. Attributes expressed by prepositional phrases follow the noun
modified.

As a gesture of proud defiance he had named his son Francis Nicholas. (Cronin)

Besides the cases when the post-position of the attribute is its normal (unemphatic) place, there are a few instances when the post­position of an attribute expressed by an adjective serves the purpose of emphasis.

It was with a conscience uneasy that Edwin shut the front door one night a month later. (Bennett)