11 страница. In this example we can easily put the attribute before the word modified, but then it will not be prominent.

In this example we can easily put the attribute before the word modified, but then it will not be prominent.

Whereas the post-position of a single adjective is rather rare, two or more adjectives are often placed after the word modified for the sake of emphasis: these adjectives may or may not be joined by a conjunction.

He gave Annette a look furtive and searching. (Galsworthy)

("He gave Annette a furtive and searching look" would sound less emphatic.)

All sorts of fancies bright and dark tenanted my mind. (Ch. Bronte)

When two or more attributive adjectives are placed in post-position, their connection with the noun they modify is often loose, i. e. they become detached and are consequently separated by a comma.

When I looked up... there stood the widow, pale, grave, and amazed. (Ch. Bronte)

The boy inherited his own eyes, large, brilliant and black

(E. Bronte)

When an attribute expressed by an adjective modifies a proper noun or a personal pronoun, it mostly stands in loose connection to it whether it is placed in pre-position or in post-position.

Clare, restless, went out into the dusk. (Hardy)

Pale and constrained, he walked into the room and took his

seat at the window. (Cronin)

 

§ 7. Position of adverbial modifiers.

An adverbial modifier hardly ever separates the direct object from the predicate. It stands either before the predicate or after the direct object.

Helen heard me patiently to the end. (Ch. Bronte)

We could also very well say: " Helen patiently heard me to the end," but no other position of the adverbial modifier is possible here, unless it is meant to be emphatic; in this case it is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

However, an adverbial modifier separates the direct object from its verb when the object has an attribute (see § 5).

He knew instinctively the principles of "pyramiding" and "kit­ing". (Dreiser)

He could read English but he saw there an alien speech. (Lon­don)

1. An adverbial modifier of time is generally placed either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

On Tuesday night the new laundrymen arrived, and the rest of the week was spent breaking them into the routine. (Lon­don)

Probably we shall try tomorrow. (Heym)

Adverbial modifiers expressed by the adverbs now and then can be placed in nearly any position.

Tess then remembered that there would have been time for this. (Hardy)

Indeed, anything untoward was now sedulously kept from James (Galsworthy)

We now slowly ascended a drive and came upon the long front of a house. (Ch. Bronte)

Note. The hour is generally mentioned before a more general adverbial modifier of time such as day, night, evening, morning.

2. An adverbial modifier of place generally stands either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. Down in the mill yard a Bessemer furnace was blowing flame into the sky. (Maltz) Geodin led the guests into the parlour. (O. Henry) There it was all spiritual. Here it was all material and meanly material. (London) ... a library was a most likely place for her, and he might see her there. (London) However, an adverbial modifier of place sometimes comes between the predicate and the prepositional object. He emerged from the theatre with the first of the crowd. (Lon­don) Adverbial modifiers of place generally precede those of time and purpose: I am going to the country tomorrow. Well, they only kept up there about an hour but that was sure a long time. (Maltz) Sybil had gone to town to buy a new carpet for the first floor landing. (M. Dickens) 3. The place of the adverbial modifier of frequency is more fixed than that of other adverbial modifiers which enjoy a certain freedom of position. As a rule they precede the predicate verb in a simple tense form but follow the verb to be and all the modal verbs. In a compound tense form they follow the first auxiliary. No one ever loved me. (London) Lily would complain that she always told Jane everything she knew. (Herbert) She was always on the point of telling him the truth. As for Charlie, he needed frequently to have a confidant. (S. Lewis)

At nine in the evening Badly White... opened the door to the room and poked his head in. (Maltz)

Don't go worrying about what may never happen. He can never leave out an irreligious finale. (Lindsay) I'd just love to come, but Francis and I can't ever be away to­gether. (Galsworthy)

She cared for Ailen more than she had ever cared for any of her children. (M. Dickens)

However, when they are emphasized they stand before the verb to be.

You were awfully good about being pushed up here, but then you always are good about the things that happen to you. (M. Dickens)

The adverbial modifier expressed by the adverbs sometimes and generally may be placed either before or after the verb.

For he sometimes thought that, unless he proclaimed to the world what had happened to him, he would never again feel quite in possession of his soul. (Galsworthy) And I got so lonely here sometimes. (Dreiser)

In interrogative sentences adverbial modifiers of frequency come immediately after the subject.

Did you ever have shoes like that? (Abrahams) Does he often come to see you?

Adverbial modifiers of frequency sometimes occupy the first place. This position generally does not cause inversion.

Often he had asked her to come and pass judgement on his junk. (Galsworthy)

Occasionally a small band of people followed the preachers to their mission. (Dreiser)

(For the emphatic position of the adverbial modifier never see §4. \b.)

4. The most frequent position of an adverbial modifier of manner is after the predicate if the verb is intransitive, and after the direct object if the verb is transitive.

______ i — ja.______. „ u „ x ~~ ~ i5 i ^:^ ^ ^^:/ a 4 r\:^*i,

TUU HtJtJUII i wuny dUUUl IMC, LUUIbti bctiu ыиииу. (IVI.

ens)

Cokane shakes hands effusively with Sartorius. (Shaw)

An adverbial modifier of manner generally stands between the predicate-verb and the prepositional indirect object though it is also found after the object.

She leaned lightly against his shoulder. (London) Gwendolen... though I asked most distinctly for bread and but­ter, you have given me cake. (Wilde)

Very often, however, an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb stands immediately before the predicate.

... Bessie was already gone, and had closed the nursery door

upon me. I slowly descended. (Ch. Bronte)

Then it occurred to him that with this letter she was entering

that very state which he himself so earnestly desired to quit.

(Galsworthy)

In compound tense forms an adverbial modifier of manner ex­pressed by an adverb generally comes after the last auxiliary.

These ladies were deferentially received by Miss Temple. (Ch. Bronte)

Mr. Ernest has been suddenly called back to town. (Wilde)

(For the emphatic position of adverbial modifiers of manner see §4.h/.)

5. Adverbial modifiers of degree always precede the predicate; if the
verb is in a compound tense-form they follow the first auxiliary.

I entirely agree with you.

He has quite forgotten about the concert.

6. An adverbial modifier of degree expressed by the adverb enough gene-
rally follows the adjective it modifies, but may follow or precede a noun.

He is clever enough but very lazy. When enough modifies a noun it may either follow or precede it.

I have time enough to do it. I have enough time to do it.

 

ADDITIONAL REMARKS

The word please nuimally begins the sentence or finishes it.

Please, bring me the book. Bring me the book, please.

Whereas in Russian the word пожалуйста may occupy any posi­tion:

Пожалуйста, принесите мне книгу. Принесите, пожалуйста, мне книгу. Принесите мне, пожалуйста, книгу. Принесите мне книгу, пожалуйста.

In polite requests starting with modal verbs it is often used in the middle of the sentence:

Could you please call me at nine? May I please explain my reasons?

Chapter XVII

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

 

The Compound Sentence

 

§ 1. A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.

In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:

(a) syndetically, i. e. by means of coordinating conjunctions {and,
or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs {otherwise, however, neverthe-
less, yet, still, therefore, etc.).

The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted. (Lindsay)

He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart. (Cronin)

(b) asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or conjunctive ad-
verb.

The rain fell softly, the house was quiet. (Collins)

The month was July, the morning fine, the glass-door stood ajar,

through it played a fresh breeze... (Ch. Bronte)

He uttered no other words of greeting; there was too strong a

rush of mutual consciousness. (Eliot)

 

§ 2. We can distinguish the following types of coordination:

l. Copulative coordination (соединительная связь), expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also). With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another.

It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Witla were rather proud of it. (Dreiser)

Mr. Home did not lift his eyes from his breakfast-plate for about two minutes, nor did he speak. (Ch. Bronte)

Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily, and there were many new words in his vocabulary. (London)

2. Disjunctive coordination (разделительная связь) expressed by
the conjunctions or, else, or else, either... or, and the conjunctive adverb
otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed
in two clauses.

He knew it to be nonsense or it would have frightened him. (Galsworthy)

Don't come near me with that look else I'll knock you down. (Eliot)

... don't fret, and don't expect too much of him, or else he will feel you to be troublesome... (Ch. Bronte)... either our union must be consecrated and sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. (Ch. Bronte)

A painter has to be forbidding, Dad, otherwise people would think he was cadging. (Galsworthy)

3. Adversative coordination (противительная связь) expressed
by the conjunctions but, while,¹ whereas and the conjunctive adverbs
nevertheless, still, yet. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting
two clauses contrasting in meaning.

The room was dark, but the street was lighter because of its lamps. (Dickens)

He had a glass eye which remained stationary, while the other eye looked at Reinhardt. (Heym)

The old school-room was now a sitting room... whereas one of the old nurseries was now the modern school-room. (Trollope) I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yet I wept. (Ch. Bronte)

4. Causative-consecutive coordination (причинно-следственная
связь) expressed by the conjunctionsfor, so and the conjunctive adverbs
therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence.

1 The conjunction while is not always coordinating. It may be a subordi­nating conjunction introducing adverbial clauses of time.

For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding state­ment. Therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly introduce coor­dinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.^[2]

There was something amiss with Mr. Llghtwood, for he was

strangely grave and looked III. (Dickens)

After all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, so talk was

easy and happy between them. (Priestley)

Hers (Lillian's) was not a soul that ever loved passionately, hence

she could not suffer passionately. (Dreiser)

 

Note. There are cases when the conjunction for expresses relations ap­proaching those of subordination, i.e. when it introduces a clause showing the reason of the action expressed in the preceding clause. In these cases the conjunction for is very close in meaning to the conjunction because.

She (Lillian) was not helpless, for she had money of her own. (Dreiser)

But even here for is not a subordinating conjunction, as the connection between the clause it introduces and the preceding clause is loose: a certain fact is stated and then, as it were on second thought, another statement with a causal meaning is added.

 

The Complex Sentence

§ 3. A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

(For a detailed treatment of this phenomenon see § 4, 5.) Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:

 

Note. This definition is true, however, only in a general sense. In an exact sense there is often no principal clause; this is the case with complex sentences containing a subject clause or a predicative clause.

More and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. (Cronin) (CONJUNCTION) All that he had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. (Cronin) (CONNECTIVE)

2. Asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or connective. I wish you had come earlier. (Heym)

Circumstances try the metal a man Is really made of. (Collins)

A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principal clause.

His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel. (Cronin)

As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined

alone together. (Dickens)

It was dull and dreary enough, when the long summer evening closed in, on that Saturday night. (Collins)

A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other.

They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out. (Collins)

What Mr. Pancks knew about the Dorrit family, what more he really wanted to find out, and why he should trouble his busy head about them at all, were questions that often perplexed him. (Dickens)

A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination.

He never asked why Erik was giving up academic work. (Wil­son)

I don't mind making the admission... that there are certain forms of so-called humor, or, at least, fun, which I am quite unable to appreciate. (Leacock)

I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent way of speak-
ing about her, asjfjtheji^
successjn^^ (Dickens)

According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object, and adverbial clauses.

§ 4. Subject clauses perform the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such.

What I want to do is to save us both. (Dreiser)

If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called intro­ductory it is used in the principal clause.

It was always possible that they might encounter some one. (Dreiser)

 

Note. There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type, according to which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the sub­ordinate clause is a predicative clause.

 

Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the fol­lowing ways:

(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. (Heym)

Whether she was determined to bring matters to a crisis, or whether she was prompted by some private sign from Mr. Buff_A is more than I can tell. (Collins)

(b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, what-
ever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive
adverbs).

What was done could not be undone. (Hardy)

Whatever I can do for you will be nothing but paying a debt...

(Eliot)

It's a grand thing when you see the working class in acti on. (Lindsay)

(c) asyndetically.

It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her. (Eliot)

Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by з comma except when we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other.

Who her mother was, and how she came to die in that forlornness, were questions that often pressed on Eppie's mind. (Eliot) It was plain, pitiably plain, that he was aware of his own defect of memory, and that he was bent on hiding it from the observation of his friends. (Collins)

 

Note. Formally it is possible to distinguish a subject clause in sentences with an emphatic construction; however, in meaning they are equivalent to simple sentences.

It was his uncle who spoke first. (Priestley)

It was there that the offensive was to begin. (Hemingway)

It was very seldom that I uttered more than monosyllables in

Dr. John's presence. (Ch. Bronte)

§ 5. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i. e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways: (a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if Our attitude simply is that facts are facts. (Leacock) The thing to be settle on now is whether anything can be done to save him. (Dreiser) It was as if these men and women had matured. (Heym) It seems as if all these years I've been living under false pre­tences. (Cronin) I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. (Eliot) (b) by means of the connectives who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs). But this time, just about sunset, was always what I loved best. (Eliot) The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet. (Dreis­er) That was why you were not one bit frightened. (Eliot)

It was not till she was quite close that he could believe her to be Tess. (Hardy)

(с) asyndetically.

Another thing... was they had nurse Andrews staying on with thp_m that week. (Mansfield)

As a rule predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other.

But the chief reason is, that Mirah will desire to watch over y ou^ and that you ought to give her the guardianship of a brother's presence. (Eliot)

 

N о t e. In a sentence containing a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal clause is represented only by the link verb.

§ 6. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause. I don't know what you are talking about. (Gow and D'Ussean) An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state. I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard. (Leacock) I ventured on asking why he was in such a hurry to get back jo town. (Collins) Mr. Bruff folded up the will, and then looked my way apparently wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone w ith my aunt. (Collins) Soames averted his eyes and became conscious that Winifr ed and he were alone. (Galsworthy) They were not sure what the morrow would bring forth. (Dreiser) The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedd inc^ (Trollope) She was aware that someone else was there. (Eliot) Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the fol­lowing ways:

What we want to know is what the French are going to do now. (Greene)

(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

You know quite well, Ariadne, that I have not an ounop of _pet- tishness in my disposition. (Shaw)

Jane... wondered if Brian and Margaret were really suited fnr one another. (Lindsay)

Time will show whether I am right or wrong. (Collins)

(b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever,
whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why
(conjunctive adverbs).

I'll do just what I say. (Dreiser)

I half rose, and advanced my head to see how she was occupied. (Ch. Bronte)

He wondered why he should look back... (Wilson)

I don't know where he developed his prose style, probably in the

best of schools, the open air. (Nichols)

(c) asyndetically.

He said there was nothing much the matter with me. (Maxwell) An object clause may be introduced by a preposition.

I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose. (Eliot)

I found it hard to keep my mind on what the colonel was saying. (Greene)

An object clause is sometimes preceded by the introductory object it.

I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean. (Trollope)

As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause.

What I used not to like, I long for now. (Eliot) What happened then I do not know. (Conan Doyle)

If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are sepa-

ICILV^VJ Labi 1 VJlllV^l u) CI VUlliiliu.

I can't tell you what tricks they performed, or how they did it. (Collins)

N о t e. A sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent clauses.

"I don't deserve to be mocked at," she said in a stifled voice (Lindsay)

"Well," I thought, "at any rate, judging by the smell, the food must be good." (Mansfield)

 

§ 7. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones.

Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attribu­tive appositive clauses disclose its meaning.

The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to the senses. (Conrad) (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

The fortunate fact that the rector's letter did not require an im­mediate answer would give him time to consider. (Hardy) (AT­TRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSE)

Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syn-detically — by means of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses only syndetically — by means of conjunctions.

 

§ 8. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.

1. An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:

1 As introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.

(a) relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as^x);

(b) relative adverbs (where, when);

(c) asyndetically

You could not but feel sympathy for a man who took so much delight in simple things. (Maugham)

... but there is no private life which has not been determined by

a wider, public life. (Eliot)

All that could be done had been done. (Dreiser)

He sang a loud song... such a song as the Spanish wagoneers

sing in Algeria. (Hichens)

And he is now come to that stage of life when a man like him should enter into public affairs. (Eliot)

They spoke no more all the way back to the lodging where Fanny and her uncle lived. (Dickens)

There was simply nothing else he could do. (Coppard)

I think my father is the best man I have ever known. (Shaw)

2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non-restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.

Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases intro­duced syndetically by means of:

(a) relative pronouns (who, which);

(b) relative adverbs (where, when).

Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool. (Cro­nin)

She uttered a wild scream, which in its heart-rending intensity seemed to echo for miles. (Hardy)

He went in alone to the dining-room where the table was laid for one. (Cronin)

The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an at­tributive relative non-restrictive clause.

He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve. (Dreiser)

A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clause is the continu-ative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. Continuative clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma.

A continuative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which, rendered in Russian by the pronoun что.

Mr. Manston was not Indoors, which was a relief to her. (Hardy) But to-day... he had slept only in snatches, which was wors eth_an not sleeping at all. (Cronin)

For this purpose they probably lowered the bridge, which c anh_e done quite noiselessly. (Conan Doyle)

§ 9. Attributive appositive clauses. Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antece­dent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. An attributive appositive clause is not separated from the principal clause by a comma. Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by the adverbs how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically. He stopped in the hope that she would speak. (Dickens) And then she had a nightmare conviction that she'd lost her sense of direction and was going the wrong way. ( Lindsay) I have a presentiment that he is bringing trouble and misery with him into the house. (Collins) With his former doubt whether this dry hard personage were quite in earnest, Clennam again turned his eyes attentively upon his face. (Dickens) There was no reason why she should not read it (the book). (Hichens) Thus to Cytherea and Owen Gray the question how th eir lives would end seemed the deepest of possible enigmas. (Hardy) §10. The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses. As has already been stated, attributive relative clauses are introduced by the following relative pronouns: who, which, that, as. In using these pronouns the following rules should be observed: l. If the antecedent is a noun denoting a living being, who or whose are mostly used.