13 страница. She said, "1 was writing at 5 o'clock." She said she was (had been) writing at 5 o'clock. The Past Perfect

 

She said, "1 was writing at 5 o'clock."	She said she was (had been) writing at 5 o'clock.
The Past Perfect remains unchanged.
She said, "We had written the letter by 5 o'clock."	She said they had written the letter by 5 o'clock.
The Past Perfect Continuous remains unchanged.
She said, "We had been writing for an hour by 5 o'clock."	She said they had been writing for an hour by 5 o'clock.

The Future Indefinite is replaced by the Future Indefinite in the Past.

 

She said, "We'll write a letter tomor­row."	She said they would write a letter the next day.
The Future Continuous is replaced by the Future Continuous in the Past.
She said, "We'll be writing at 5 o'clock."	She said they would be writing at 5 o'clock.
The Future Perfect is replaced by the Future Perfect in the Past.
She said, "We'll have written the letter by 5 o'clock."	She said they would have written the letter by 5 o'clock.
The Future Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.
■ She said, "We'll have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o'clock."	She said they would have been writ­ing for 2 hours by 5 o'clock.

If the Past Indefinite in direct speech denotes an action taking place at a definite moment, it remains unchanged in indirect speech.

 

She said, "1 had left home before the telegram came."	She said she had left home before the telegram came.
The Past Indefinite after since generally remains unchanged.
She said, "1 have been writing since 1 came."	She said she had been writing since she came.

It is not always necessary to change the tense of the verb, if the verb in the principal clause is in the past.

If something is reported that is still true, there is no need to change the tense.

Tom said, "New York is bigger than London."

Tom said (that) New York is (was) bigger than London.

But if there is a difference between what was said and what is really true, the tense of the verb must be changed.

For example, you met Cathy. Cathy said, "John is ill". Later that day you see John playing tennis and looking well. You say, "I'm surprised that you are playing tennis, John. Cathy said you were ill."

5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are con­verted into indirect speech the form of the verb usually remains unchanged.

However, there is a case when the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed: if we have the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in the principal clause stands in a past tense.

 

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
1 should be discharged if 1 were seen speaking to you. (Shaw)	She said that she would be dis­charged if she were seen speaking to him.
It is true 1 drink, but 1 shouldn't have taken to that if things had gone dif­ferently. (Maugham)	He admitted that he drank, but said he would not have taken to that if things had gone differently.
Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
I think cheerfulness is a fortune in itself. I wish I had it. (Eliot)	She thought cheerfulness was a for­tune in itself. She wished she had it.
Oh, how I wish I had never seen him! (Hardy)	She said she wished she had never seen him.
The boys will think none the worse of you whatever you may have done. (Conan Doyle)	He said that the boys would think none the worse of him whatever he might have done.
6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation.
She said, "I've never seen the like of it."	She declared she had never seen the like of it.
She said to him, "Do you know them?"	She asked him if he knew them.
She said to him, "Come here at once!"	She told him to come at once.
She said, "Why, I never expected he would do such a thing."	She exclaimed she had never expect­ed he would do such a thing.

 

(For detailed treatment see § 3, 4, 5, 7.)

7. It should be borne in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and that of indirect speech.

Direct speech is characterized by a certain looseness of structure and is more emotional than indirect speech.

Indirect speech, on the contrary, is characterized by rigid logic of structure and terseness.

Accordingly, if, for instance, no conjunctions expressing causal relations are to be found in direct speech, they must be introduced into indirect speech.

She said, "I am so tired! I've been writ­ing for five hours "

She said she was very tired as she had been writing for five hours

If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in indirect speech.

 

She said to him, "It's very kind of you to offer to help me, very kind indeed."	She said it was very kind of him to offer to help her.
So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly etc. in exclamatory sentences.
She said, "Jane plays the piano so well!"	She said Jane played the piano very well.
She said, 'Jane is such a good pia­nist!"	She said Jane was an exceedingly (very) good pianist.
Interjections must be replaced by suitable adverbial modifiers.
She said, "Alas! I'll never be happy again!"	She exclaimed in despair she would never be happy again.
8. Must, as a rule, remains unchanged in indirect speech if it ex­presses advice (order) or a supposition bordering on assurance (должно быть).
She said to him, "You must be more careful." (advice)	She told him he must be more care­ful.
She said, "You must be very fond of music if you go to concerts so often." (supposition)	She said he must be very fond of mu­sic if he went to concerts so often.

She was informed that she must never again walk much. (Hardy) He said he was afraid you must think him ungrateful. (Marryat) Mr. Brownlow smiled and said that Mr. Grimwig was an old friend of his and he must not mind his being a little rough in his man­ners. (Dickens)

Must is generally replaced by had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances.

She said, "I must get up early every morning."

She said she had to get up early every morning.

Must is generally replaced by was to if it expresses arrangement or a kind of order.

 

She said, "1 must ring him up at two	She said she was to ring him up at
o'clock."	two o'clock.

Might, could, would, should (as a modal verb) and ought stay the same in indirect speech, may normally changes to might.

 

§ 3. Indirect statements.

Indirect statements are generally introduced by the verbs to say, to tell, to announce and in official style by the verb to inform.

With the verbs to tell and to inform the person addressed is always mentioned. With the verbs to say and to announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If it is mentioned, the preposition to is used.

 

She said (to us), "There are interesting magazines in the reading-hall."	She said (she told us) that there were interesting magazines in the reading-hall.
She said (to us), "1 am leaving for good."	She announced to us that she was leaving for good.
The monitor said to us, "There will be a meeting tonight."	The monitor informed us that there would be a meeting that night.

One night the telephone bell rang and he (Cowperwood) in­formed her that he was compelled to remain at the office late. (Dreiser)

The verb to say is used to introduce both direct and indirect speech if the person addressed is not mentioned. If the person is mentioned, the verb to tell is preferable; if the verb to say is used, the preposition to is necessary.

She said, "I'll be back directly."

She said she would be back directly.

 

You said that you would give me back my letter, didn't you?

(Wilde)

The Miller said to his wife that he would go down and see Little Hans. (Wilde)

Note 2. The verb to speak never introduces indirect speech because it is never followed by an object clause (it can only be followed by an object clause with a preposition).

Therefore the sentence 'Он говорил, что любит музыку' should be rendered in the following way: He said he was fond of music.

Note 3. It should be noted that the verb to speak cannot take a direct ob­ject, unless it is the name of a language or the noun truth in the expression to speak the truth. 'Он говорил много интересного' should be rendered in the following way: He said many interesting things.

 

An emphatic statement tinged with emotion is often introduced
by the verb to declare.
She said, "It's the dullest book I've	She declared it was the dullest book
ever read."	she had ever read.

The innkeeper declared that he really wanted to go to Oak-bourne. (Eliot)

Other verbs are also used to introduce statements. According to the character of the statement, the verbs to promise, to remark, to remind, to assure, to admit, to deny etc. are frequently used.

 

He said to me, " 1 hope you have not forgotten that there will be a meeting tonight."	He reminded me that there would be a meeting that night.
He said, "The text is rather difficult."	He remarked that the text was rather difficult.
He said, "1 did speak to her about that."	He admitted having spoken to her about that.
He said, "1 never spoke to her."	He denied having spoken to her.
The child said to his mother, "I'll never disobey you again."	The child promised his mother never to disobey her again.
She said to them, "I'll certainly come in time."	She assured them that she would come in time.

I spoke to the station-master and also to the innkeeper of the village. Both of them assured me that he (my friend) had gone for a voyage round the world. (Conan Doyle)

 

§ 4. Indirect questions.

Word order in an indirect question is the same as in a statement. An indirect general question is introduced by the conjunction //or whether.

I said to her, "Have you lived here long?"

I asked her if she had lived there long.

 

She asked if she knew him. (Bennett)

An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces a direct question.

said to her, "Where do you live?"

I asked her where she lived.

 

I asked her where she was going and where her friends were. (Ch. Bronte)

If a direct question to the subject contains the link verb to be, the direct order of words is not always strictly observed.

He asked, "Who is that man?"

He asked

who the man was. who was the man.

 

The direct question What is the matter? can be converted in two ways:

He asked what was the matter. He asked what the matter was.

Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verb to ask. In more official style the verb to inquire is used.

She called at the office and said, "When does the secretary usually come?"

She called at the office and inquired when the secretary usually came.

 

If the person addressed is mentioned, the verb to inquire is used with the preposition of.

This occurs in bookish style only.

 

She said to him, "Where does Mrs.	She inquired of him where Mrs. Brown
Brown live?"	lived.

In rendering answers the verbs to answer and to reply are generally used.

Occasionally, answers are rendered in the following way: His reply (answer) was that..., He said in reply... This is not colloquial.

 

§ 5. Indirect orders and requests.

An order or a request in indirect speech is expressed by an infini­tive:

 

She said to him, "Open the window (do not open the window)."	She told him to open the window (not to open the window).
She said to him, "Please, open the window (do not open the window)."	She asked him to open the window (not to open the window).

The choice of the verb is determined by the character of the order (request).

The verb most commonly used to introduce indirect orders is the verb to tell; the verb to order is frequently used, occasionally also the verb to coinniund.

The verb to tell corresponds to the Russian сказать, чтобы and велеть; to order and to command correspond to приказать.

Mr. Bumble said to Oliver, "Bow to the board."	Mr. Bumble ordered Oliver to bow to the board.
The officer said to the soldiers, "Stop!"	The officer commanded the soldiers to stop.

The verb to request is used in official style, chiefly in the Passive Voice. It is best rendered in Russian by предложить.

The verb to request introduces rather a veiled order than a re­quest.

 

The ticket collector said to the pas­senger, "Produce your ticket."	The ticket collector requested (предложил) the passenger to pro­duce his ticket. or: The passenger was requested to pro­duce his ticket.
Unemotional requests are usually introduced by the verb to ask.
He said to a passer-by, "Will you show me the way to the theatre?"	He asked a passer-by to show him the way to the theatre.
The verb to beg introduces a request somewhat more emotional.
The child said to his mother, "Do take me to the circus!"	The child begged his mother to take him to the circus.

Very often, however, it is used in the same meaning as the verb to ask, only it is more polite:

 

He said to the visitor, "Will you walk	He begged the visitor to walk in.
in?"

Emotional (emphatic) requests are introduced by the verbs to im­plore, to entreat, to beseech (умолять).

 

Eliza said to the stranger, "Do save	Eliza implored the stranger to save
my child!"	her child.

The verb to urge introduces a request made with great insistence. It corresponds to the Russian настаивать, уговаривать.

 

The mother said to her son," Do take	The mother urged her son to take
care of yourself!"	care of himself.

As is seen from the above examples, in converting requests begin­ning with the emphatic do, we use the verbs to implore, to entreat, to beseech, to urge.

 

§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice.

When converting offers and suggestions into indirect speech, we use the verbs to offer and to suggest. There is a difference between these two verbs, though both are rendered in Russian by 'предложить': the person who makes an offer intends to do the action himself, and the action is an act of kindness. A suggestion may also be an act of kindness, but not necessarily; the person who makes a suggestion may or may not intend to do the action himself.

 

He said to her, "Shall 1 fetch you a glass of water?" She said, "Do, please." ("No, don't trouble.")	He offered to fetch her a glass of water and she accepted the offer (de­clined the offer).
He said to her, "Suppose we go there together?" She said, "Very well." ("No, 1 would rather you went alone.")	He suggested that they should go there together and she consented (refused).

§ 7. Indirect exclamations.

When exclamations are converted into indirect speech, it is not so much the verb as the adverbial modifier which shows the character of the exclamation — whether it expresses joy, sorrow, surprise, etc.

 

She said, "How pleasant! Jane is go­ing to spend a week with us!"	She cried joyfully (with joy, delight­edly) that Jane was going to spend a week with them.
She said, "1 am so sorry! Jane is leav­ing us!"	She said sadly (with deep sadness, sorrowfully) that Jane was leaving them.
She said, "1 am sure we'll never meet again."	She said regretfully she was sure they would never meet again.
She said to them, "I'm sure you'll soon forget me."	She said with bitterness that she knew (was sure) they would soon for­get her.
She said to him, "You are telling a lie!"	She cried indignantly (with indigna­tion) that he was telling a lie.
She said to him, "Do you mean to say you've already read all the books?"	She asked in surprise if he had really read all the books.
She said to him, "Excuse me for dis­turbing you."	She apologized (to him) for disturb­ing him.
She said to him, "Beg your pardon, I've forgotten to bring you the book."	She begged his pardon for having forgotten to bring the book.
She said to him, "Do forgive me for what I've done."	She begged his forgiveness (im­plored him to forgive her) for what she had done.
She said to them, "Thank you for your help."	She thanked them (expressed her gratitude to them) for their help.

 

§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking in indirect speech.

When converting greetings and leave-taking into indirect speech, we use such verbs as to greet, to welcome, etc.

370 ■ Part II. Syntax
She said to them, "How do you do?"	She greeted them.
He said to them, "Happy to see you at my place."	He welcomed them.
He said to them, "Good-bye!"	He bade them good-bye.
He said to them, "Good night!"	He wished them good night.

Chapter XX

PUNCTUATION

 

 

§ 1. The punctuation marks show the grammatical relations between words, phrases, clauses, and sentences; besides they serve to emphasize particular words and to indicate intonation. Thus the use of punctua­tion marks is mainly regulated by syntactical relations: the structure of the sentence (simple, compound, complex), the function of the word or word-group in a sentence or clause, the way coordinate clauses are linked, and the types of subordinate clauses.

 

 

The Simple Sentence

 

To separate different parts of the sentence, the following rules are observed.

 

§ 2. With homogeneous members either a comma or no punctuation mark whatever is used.

1. A comma is used to separate homogeneous members joined
asyndetically.

The punishment cell was a dark, damp, filthy hole. (Voynich) She shook her head, dried the dishes herself, sat down with some mending. (Cronin)

Her breathing was slow, tortured. (Maltz)

2. A comma is used after each of several homogeneous members if
the last is joined by the conjunction and.

The captain, the squire, and I were talking matters over in the cabin. (Stevenson)

He lighted his cigarette, said good night, and went on. (Lon­don)

 

Note. The comma before the last of the homogeneous members can be omitted.

3. If two homogeneous members are joined by the conjunction
and, no comma is used.

She nodded and smiled. (Heym)

He went out heavily and shut the door behind him. (Abrahams)

4. If there are several homogeneous members and each of them is
joined to the preceding by the conjunction and or nor, they may or may
not be separated by commas.

Em'ly, indeed, said little all the evening; but she looked, and listened, and her face got animated, and she was charming. (Dickens)

She was not brilliant, nor witty, nor wise overmuch, nor extraor­dinary handsome. (Thackeray)

5. A comma is used to separate homogeneous members joined
by the conjunction but and the correlative conjunction not only... but
also.

He had been always about to paint a masterpiece, but had never yet begun it. (O. Henry)

Not only hope, but confidence has been restored. (Nesfield)

6. A comma is used to separate homogeneous members going in
pairs.

Between halts and stumbles, jerks and lurches, locomotion had at times seemed impossible. (London)

They had forgotten time and place, and life and death. (Voy­nich)

 

§ 3. With detached members of the sentence cither a comma or a dash is used.

1. To separate a loose apposition a comma or a dash is used. The
latter is less common.

He, Martin Eden, was a better man than that fellow. (London) The old gentleman, her father, was always dabbling in specula­tion. (Thackeray)

To think that Johnnie — my best friend — should have acted so meanly. (Bennett)

2. To separate all types of detached adverbial modifiers a comma
is used.

The Chuzzlewit family was, in the very earliest times, closely con­nected with agricultural interest. (Dickens) It being then just dinner-time, we went first into the great kitchen. (Dickens)

Away went George, his nerves quivering with excitement at the news so long looked for. (Thackeray)

Mr. Micawber sat in his elbow-chair, with his eyebrows raised. (Dickens)

Old Jolyon had risen, and, cigar in mouth, went to inspect the group. (Galsworthy)

He drew his hands away, shivering. (Voynich)

Poor Jemima trotted off, exceedingly flurried and nervous.

(Thackeray)

The people, seeing my empty carriage, would rush for it. (Jer­ome)

3. To separate detached attributes a comma is used.

There are some truths, cold, bitter, tainting truths. (Dickens) Here we have a remark, at once consistent, clear, natural. (Dick­ens)

4. To separate detached objects a comma is used.

Maggie, with a large book on her lap, shook her heavy hair. (Eliot)

But instead of the print, he seemed to see his wife. (Galswor­thy)

Sometimes a dash is used.

 

§ 4. To separate parenthetical words, groups of words, and clauses

a comma, a dash, or brackets may be used. The comma is the most usual.

To occupy her mind, however, she took the jobs given her. (Galsworthy)

In fact, she marked the change in his face with satisfaction. (London)

As for my mother, both her brothers were policemen. (Lindsay) She sang a foolish song of Gustave Charpentier's — a song born dead — and she sang it sentimentally. (Bennett) To the hired butler (for Roger only kept maids) she spoke about the wine. (Galsworthy)

§ 5. To separate interjections a comma or an exclamation mark may be used.

Oh, Doreen didn't know anything about it. (Cusack) Ah! That's the way to make the money. (Cusack)

 

§ 6. To separate direct address a comma is used.

Arthur, have you thought what you are saying? (Voynich)

And run in to see me, my lad, when you have time any evening.

(Voynich)

 

Note.lt should be borne in mind that a comma (or a colon) and not an exclamation mark is used in salutation in letters.

My dear Jon, we have been here now a fortnight. (Galsworthy)

 

The Compound Sentence

To separate coordinate clauses the following rules on the use of punctuation marks are observed.

 

§ 7. Coordinate clauses joined asyndetically are always separated by a punctuation mark.

The most usual punctuation mark is the semicolon.

Arthur looked at his watch; it was nine o'clock. (Voynich) The policeman took no notice of them; his feet were planted apart on the strip of crimson carpet stretched across the pavement; his face, under the helmet, wore the same stolid, watching look as theirs. (Galsworthy)

A colon or a dash may be used when the second coordinate clause serves to explain the first. They serve to express the relations which a conjunction would express.

Breakfast over, Aunt Polly had family worship: it began with a prayer built from the ground up of solid courses of scriptural quotations. (Twain)

Ellsworth advised a triangular piano — the square shapes were so inexpressibly wearisome to the initiated. (Dreiser)

A comma is used to separate coordinate clauses when the connec­tion between them is very close.

A fly settled on his hair, his breathing sounded heavy in the drowsy silence, his upper lip under the white moustache puffed in and out. (Galsworthy)

 

§ 8. Coordinate clauses joined by copulative conjunctions.

Clauses joined by the conjunction and may be separated by a comma (if the connection between the clauses is close) or a semicolon (if the clauses are more independent). Occasionally a dash is used.

... a library was a most likely place for her, and he might see her there. (London)