Read the text. Most people think that inattention is the key characteristic of ADHD, there is a growing consensus that inattention

Most people think that inattention is the key characteristic of ADHD, there is a growing consensus that inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivy are actually the result of problems in behavioral inhibition.

There is an abundance of research pointing to problems with behavioral inhibition in people with ADHD. Russell Barkley, has proposed a model of ADHD in which behavioral inhibition is key. In its simplest form, this model proposes that problems in behavioral inhibition set the stage for problems in executive functions and time awareness and management, which then disrupt the person's ability to engage in persistent goal-directed behavior. Behavioral inhibition involves the ability to do the following: delay a response; interrupt an ongoing response, if one detects that the response is inappropriate because of sudden changes in the demands of the task, or protect a response from distracting or competing stimuli.

Problems in behavioral inhibition can be reflected in the ability to wait one's turn, to refrain from interrupting conversations, to resist potential distractions while working, or to delay immediate gratification to work for larger, long-term rewards. In addition, there is evidence that problems with behavioral inhibition in children with ADHD is related to abnormalities of the caudate in the brain. In the classroom, difficulties with behavioral inhibition can present themselves during task-switching or transitions.

The delay allowed by behavioral inhibition permits the individual to self-regulate his or her behavior. This ability to engage in a variety of self-directed behaviors involves what are referred to as executive functions. The fact that there is a wealth of evidence that executive functions are controlled by the prefrontal and frontal lobes of the brain fits nicely with the neuroimaging studies pointing to these areas of the brain being abnormal in persons with ADHD.

In Barkley's model, persons with ADHD can exhibit problems with executive function in four general ways. First, they often have problems with working memory (WM). WM refers to a person's ability to keep information in mind that " can be used to guide one's actions either now or in the near future" (Barkley car Murphy, 1998, p. 2). In the case of students with ADHD, deficiencies in WM can result in forgetfulness, a lack of hindsight and forethought, and problems with time management.

Second, people with ADHD frequently have delayed inner speech. Inner speech is the inner " voice" that allows people to " talk" to themselves about various solutions when in the midst of solving a problem Students with ADHD who have deficient inner speech have problems in guiding their behavior in situations that demand the ability to follow rules or instructions.

Third, children and adults have problems controlling their emotions and their arousal levels. They often overreact to negative or positive experiences. On hearing good news, for example, they might scream loudly, unable to keep their emotions to themselves. Likewise, they are often quick to show their temper when confronted with frustrating experiences.

Fourth, children and adults with ADHD have difficulty analyzing problems and communicating solutions to others. They are less flexible when faced with problem situations, often responding impulsively with the first thing that comes to mind.

Barkley sees the deficit in time awareness and management shown by people with ADHD as crucial.

Understanding time and how we organize our own behavior within 3nd toward it is a major key to the mystery of understanding The many problems with executive functions experienced by people with ADHD lead to deficits in engaging in sustained goal-directed activities:

The poor sustained attention that apparently characterizes those with ADHD probably represents an impairment in goal- or task-directed persistence arising from poor inhibition and the toll it takes on self-regulation. And the distractibility ascribed to those with ADHD most likely arises from poor interference control that allows other external and internal events to disrupt the executive functions that provide for self-control and task persistence. The net effect is an individual who cannot persist in effort toward tasks that provide little immediate reward and who flits from one uncompleted activity to another as disrupting events occur. The inattention in ADHD can now be seen as not so much a primary symptom as a secondary one; it is the consequence of the impairment that behavioral inhibition and interference control create in the self-regulation or executive control of behavior.

With diminished self-regulation or executive control abilities, students with ADHD find it exceedingly difficult to stay focused on tasks that require effort or concentration but which are not inherently exciting (e.g., many school-related activities).

The concept of adaptive skills (e.g., self-help, community use, home use, and so forth) has traditionally been associated with the area of mental retardation. In recent years, authorities in the ADHD field have discovered that many children and adults with ADHD also have difficulties in adaptive behavior. A good example is that they have more problems related to driving as adolescents and young adults; more accidents and traffic violations. Furthermore, those who do have problems with adaptive skills run a much greater risk of having a variety of learning and behavioral problems at school and home.

Some authorities have argued that the social problems that students with ADHD experience are so common that they should be considered the defining characteristic of the condition (Landau, Milich & Diener, 1998). Although the evidence might not warrant asserting that all persons with ADHD experience problems getting along with others, it is probably safe to say that the majority experience significant problems in peer relations. In fact, it usually does not take long for others to find students with ADHD uncomfortable to be around. For example, one team of researchers found that after just one day in a summer camp, many children with ADHD were rejected by other campers (Erhardt & Hinshaw, 1994).

Unfortunately, the negative social status experienced by students with ADHD is difficult to overcome and is usually long lasting. The enduring nature of social rejection leads easily to social isolation. The result is that many children and adults with ADHD have few friends, even though they may desperately want to be liked. This can set up a vicious circle in which they attempt to win friends by latching onto the least chance for interaction with others. But their frantic need for friendship, coupled with their deficient impulse control, ends up leading them to bother or pester the very people they are trying to befriend.

Given the problems in behavioral inhibition, it is not surprising that so many children and adults with ADHD end up socially ostracized. Unable to regulate their behavior and emotions, they are viewed as rude by others. It may not be that they do not know how to behave appropriately so much as that they are unable to do so (Landau et al., 1998). In other words, if asked what the appropriate behavior in a given situation should be, they can often give the socially acceptable answer. But when faced with choices in the actual situation, their deficits in behavioral inhibition lead them to make choices impulsively and to overreact emotionally.

ADHD often occurs simultaneously with other behavioral and/or learning problems, such as learning disabilities or emotional or behavioral disorders. In addition, persons with ADHD run a higher risk than the general population for substance abuse.

Learning Disabilities Studies using careful diagnostic criteria have found an overlap of 10 to 25 percent between ADHD and learning disabilities. Some authorities maintain that the relationship is strongest for students who have ADHD.

Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Estimates of the overlap with ADHD vary widely, but it is safe to say that 25 to 50 percent of people with ADHD also exhibit some form of emotional or behavioral disorder. Some people with ADHD can exhibit aggressive, acting-out behaviors; whereas others can have the types of withdrawn behaviors that accompany anxiety or depression. Adults with ADHD are about twice as likely as the general population to abuse alcohol or to become dependent on drugs, such as cocaine. Children with ADHD who also have externalizing types of behavior disorders are especially vulnerable for early drug use. In addition, adults with ADHD are about twice as likely to be cigarette smokers. Some reports in the popular media have claimed that the treatment of ADHD with psychostimulants such as Ritalin leads children to take up the use of illegal substances.

Exactly why ADHD co-occurs with so many other learning and behavioral disabilities remains largely a mystery. Researchers are just beginning to attempt to tease out which of several possibilities are the most likely reasons for so much overlap between ADHD and other disabilities.

 

III. 1. Answer the questions:

1) What are the major psychological characteristics of ADHD?

2) What methods of assessment are used to identify individuals with ADHD?

3) Does having ADHD put one at risk for developing another disability, such as learning disabilities or depression?

4) What are the symptoms of other disorders common with ADHD?

·Answer:

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): Only a qualified mental health professional can diagnose ODD. ODD usually starts before age 8, but no later than early adolescence. Symptoms may occur most often with people the individual knows well, such as family members or a regular care provider. These behaviors are present beyond what are expected for the child’s age and result in significant difficulties in school, at home, and/or with peers. Examples of ODD behaviors include:

oLosing one’s temper a lot

oArguing with adults or refusing to comply with adults’ rules or requests

oOften getting angry or being resentful or vindictive

oDeliberately annoying others; easily becoming annoyed with others

oOften blaming other people for one’s own mistakes or misbehavior

Conduct Disorder (CD): Conduct disorder is a behavioral pattern characterized by aggression toward others and serious violations of rules, laws, and social norms. These behaviors often lead to delinquency or incarceration. The symptoms of CD are apparent in several settings in the person’s life (such as at home, in the community, and at school). While CD is less common than oppositional defiant disorder, it is severe and highly disruptive to the person’s life and to others in his/her life. It is also very challenging to treat. A mental health professional should complete evaluations for CD where warranted, and a plan for intervention should be implemented as early as possible.

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5) What type of specialists would diagnose and treat ADHD?

6) Is ADHD caused by bad parenting?

Answer:

If ADHD is suspected, the diagnosis should be made by a professional with training in ADHD. This includes child psychiatrists, psychologists, developmental/behavioral pediatricians, behavioral neurologists, and clinical social workers. After ruling out other possible reasons for the child’s behavior, the specialist checks the child’s school and medical records and talks to teachers and parents who have filled out a behavior rating scale for the child.

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Answer:

ADHD often occurs with other disorders. The combination of oppositional defiant disorder ADHD and other mental health problems presents extra challenges to affected individuals, educators, and health care providers. Diagnosis and treatment are more difficult when ADHD and another condition are present in the same individual.

About half of children with ADHD referred to clinics have behavior disorders as well as ADHD. Oppositional defiant disorder is one of the most common disorders occurring with ADHD. Conduct disorder is less common, can be significantly disruptive, and is difficult to treat. Increased injuries and strained peer relationships are also common in this population.

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Answer:

Ideally, the diagnosis should be made by a professional in your area with training in ADHD or in the diagnosis of mental disorders. Child psychiatrists and psychologists, developmental/behavioral pediatricians, or behavioral neurologists are those most often trained in differential diagnosis. Clinical social workers may also have such training.

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7) How does ADHD interfere with peer relationships?

Answer:

Exactly how ADHD contributes to social problems is not fully understood. Several studies have found that children with predominantly inattentive ADHD may be perceived as shy or withdrawn by their peers. Research strongly indicates that aggressive behavior in children with symptoms of impulsivity/hyperactivity may play a significant role in peer rejection. In addition, other behavioral disorders often occur along with ADHD. Children with ADHD and other disorders appear to face greater impairments in their relationships with peers.

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8) What are the consequences of ADHD?

Answer:

Children and adolescents with ADHD can have more frequent and severe injuries than peers without ADHD. Research indicates that children with ADHD are significantly more likely to be injured as pedestrians or while riding a bicycle, to receive head injuries, injure more than one part of the body, and be hospitalized for accidental poisoning. Children with ADHD may be admitted to intensive care units or have an injury result in disability more frequently than other children.

Children with ADHD appear to have significantly higher medical costs than children without ADHD. Health care costs for each child with ADHD may be more than twice as high as medical costs for children without ADHD.

Finally, adolescents with ADHD are more likely to get involved in risky behavior like drug use.

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9)What is the treatment for ADHD?

 

2. Make the plan of the text. Here are the titles in the wrong order. Make the order correct:

1) Coexisting conditions

2) Problems socializing with peers

3) Barkley’s model of ADHD

4) Adaptive skills

5) Persistent Goal-Directed Behavior

 

3. Say whether the following statements are true or false:

1) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a developmental disorder.

2) Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity are the key behaviors of ADHD.

3) ADHD is diagnosed two to four times more frequently in boys than in girls.

4) In Barkley's model, persons with ADHD can exhibit problems with executive function in five general ways.

5) People with ADHD also exhibit some form of schizophrenia.

6) Adults with ADHD are about twice as likely as the general population to abuse alcohol or to become dependent on drugs, such as cocaine.

 

4. Find the synonymous words in the text:

- foresight;

- foreknowledge;

- to guarantee;

- extremely;

- defenceless;

- unlawfull drugs;

- to double.