The United Nations (1945)
• founded in 1945 • the mere existence meant efforts to make international law a more effective tool for preservation of international peace and the improvement of the human condition throughout the world.
2. Право международных договоров. Договорный процесс. Способы выражения согласия на обязательность международного договора (подписание, обмен документами, ратификация, присоединение). Treaties perform a variety of functions on the international plane that in domestic law are performed by many different types of legal acts The term «treaty» as used on the international plane, describes international agreements in general, whether they are denominated conventions, pacts, covenants, charters or protocols, etc. These different names have no legal significance; the same legal rules apply to one as to the other. The choice of this or that name may at times be prompted by the belief that a given designation implies greater or lesser solemnity or importance. But as a matter of international law, a treaty by whatever name is still a treaty, it is an instrument governed by international law and, once it enters into force, the parties thereto have legally binding obligations in international law.
• serve as the constitutions of international organizations • can be a source of general international law • are used to: transfer territory, regulate commercial relations, settle disputes, protect human rights, guarantee investments, ect. • International law of treaties has been codified to a large extent in The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) (entered into force in 1985) – only treaties between states
Principles: • pacta sunt servanda (binding) • free consent • good faith • Bilateral: • originate in the foreign ministry of one of the parties • discussions: embassies, exchanges of diplomatic notes, draft texts preparation, negotiations to accept one draft • enter into force: both states indicate intention to be bound by the agreement • Multilateral: • at diplomatic conferences - participating states are represented by diplomatic delegations that include legal advisers. Before confer – various working papers or draft proposals • presented amendments, established drafting committees, debated alternative texts • summarize everything->Final Act serves to authenticate the text of the treaty
Consent to be bound: • signature • exchange of instruments • usually binding upon ratification
ratification – act whereby a state, through its head of state, foreign minister, or duly authorized diplomatic agent, declares that it considers itself bound by the treaty instrument of ratification – either exchanged or deposited with the designated depository state, which performs custodial functions accession - by depositing an instrument of accession
Termination, withdrawal, suspension: • in conformity with the provisions (условия) • by consent of all parties
3. Переработка и утилизация ядерных отходов Nuclear reprocessing technology was developed to chemically separate and recover fissionable plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel.
Separation techniques:
PUREX process is “liquid- liquid” extraction method. • the spent fuel first dissolved in hot, nitric acid (to extract the elements from the spent fuel easily). • then it's brought into contact with an organic solvent (tributal phosphate) which removes the plutonium and uranium
MALTEN SOLTS reprocessing is “solvent-solvent” extraction method. • the lump spent fuel put in solvent and get a solution with a lot of ions. • put electrodes into this salt melt • set the voltage between them, certain elements stick to electrodes and certain ones remain in the solution • by selecting the voltage we are able to select which element we extracting
NCLR reprocessing reduces the volume of high-level waste, but doesn’t reduce radioactivity or heat generation and doesn’t eliminate the need for a geological waste repository.
The principle of direct disposal of spent nuclear fuel is that after removal from the reactor it’s sent to the temporary repository. They can be wet (water pool) or dry (containers on the ground). Waste with low and middle levels of radioactivity discharged immediately after formation in certain places. Then it all goes to:
DEEP GEOLOGICAL DISPOSAL • high-level wastes (spent fuel) • use mining technologies to dig a tunnel for container with spent fuel 4. Международная космическая станция: научные исследования. Космический туризм International Space Station - habitable Earth satellite. • the 9th space station ever to be inhabited; • 1st component was launched in 1998; • ISS programme - a joint project that includes 5 participating space agencies: - NASA, - the Russian Federal Space Agency, - JAXA (Japan) - ESA (Europe) - CSA (Canada).
The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided into two sections, the Russian orbital segment (ROS) and the United States orbital segment (USOS).
Purposes of ISS: • Research • Exploration • Educational
There is a lot of research conducted on the ISS: • ISS provides unique conditions: zero gravity and exposure to space in a long term period. • Scientists on Earth have access to the crew's data and can modify experiments or launch new ones. • The fields of research include Astrobiology, astronomy, space medicine etc etc.
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