Студопедия — Suborbital flights
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Suborbital flights






Suborbital flights are peaking at an altitude of 100–160 kilometres. Passengers would experience 3 to 6 minutes of weightlessness. Projected costs are expected to be about $200,000 per passenger.

 

Projects (inter alia):

Virgin Galactic. Spaceflights will last 2.5 hours, carry 6 passengers;

• XCOR Aerospace is developing a suborbital vehicle called Lynx;

• Armadillo Aerospace is developing a two-seat vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) rocket called Hyperion.

5. Право внешних сношений. Дипломатический корпус. Понятия gunboat diplomacy, coercive diplomacy, shuttle diplomacy.

International diplomatic relations law — the combination of principles and norms that govern the international activity of states

 

The term diplomatic corps denotes the entirety of all diplomatic representatives, ambassadors and ministers (in case of the Vatican, nuncios and internuncios), as well as charges d'affaires. However, in a broader sense, the diplomatic corps includes not only heads of missions but also the diplomatic personnel headed by them and those persons who enjoy diplomatic status.

 

Diplomatic corps:

• has no status of a political organisation or a body based on international law

• allows more effective solutions of certain protocol

• makes it easier to brief all diplomatic mission on all the aspects of the country’s political course

• facilitates the contacts with the country’s official circles and among the mission itself

• headed by doyen

 

doyen - head of diplomatic mission with longer term of stay in a given country. He has no position to give orders, but still the post is very respected. (he may brief just arrived colleges, hold unofficial consultative meetings)

 

gunboat diplomacy - the practice of threatening to use force against another country to make them agree to your demands

shuttle diplomacy – international talks in which someone travels between countries and talks to members of the government, for example to make a peace agreement

coercive diplomacy - refers to the use of threats or limited application of force to persuade an opponent to call off or undo an action. For instance giving up a territory that has been occupied. Coercive diplomacy differs from deterrence. In deterrence threat is employed to dissuade (отговаривать) an opponent from undertaking an action that has not yet been initiated.

 

If the post of head of the mission is vacant, or if the head of the mission is unable to perform his functions a chargé d'affaires ad interim shall act provisionally as head of the mission.

 

 

6. Функции дипломатического представительства. Понятия: агреман, persona non grata, верительные грамоты, отзывные грамоты.

Functions of diplomatic mission:

• represent the sending state

• protect the interest of the sending state and its nationals

• negotiate with the government of the receiving state

• ascertain (устанавливать) and report to the government of the sending State the conditions and developments within the receiving State.

 

Diplomatic law - ancient roots, today comprises a large developed body of law, from a variety of sources.

The 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR): over 180 parties, comprehensive legal framework for the conduct of diplomatic relations. VCDR sets out the primary functions of diplomatic missions:

• to represent the sending State

• to protect the interests of the sending State and its nationals

• to negotiate with the government of the receiving State

• to ascertain and report the conditions and developments within the receiving State

• to promote friendly relations and develop them in economic, cultural and scientific fields


Agr
ément – the consent of the receiving State for the appointment of the head of mission. The receiving State is not obliged to give reasons to the sending State for a refusal of agrément.

• Other diplomatic agents – just notifications of arrival and departure.

• military, naval, air attaches – names submitted beforehand for approval

 

The receiving State is at any time (including before their arrival), entitled to inform the sending State that the head of mission or any other member of a mission is persona non grata, or unacceptable, without giving reasons for doing so. The sending State must recall the person or terminate his functions within a certain period of time.

 

Letters of credence:

• official document

• new head of mission should be provided with

• proves the diplomatic character of the mission and diplomatic representative

• signed by the Head of State, countersigned by Minister for Foreign Affairs

• must be opened by the Head of State at the time of presentation

• placed in an envelope sealed with wax

• traditionally ornate in style

 

Letters of recall: official document sent to the Head of the receiving State to recall the Head of Mission from his post.

 

7. Право внешних сношений. Привилегии и иммунитеты дипломатических представителей. Привилегии и иммунитеты дипломатических агентов.

 

International customary law grants a host of privileges and immunities to diplomatic mission. They are laid down in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, of 1961. (entered into force in 1967)

 

 

Privileges and immunities of the diplomatic missions:

• Freedom of use of national symbols and flags on the premises, cars

premises of DM are inviolable (agents of recieving State are not entitled to enter without consent of head of mission; must be protected against intrusion or damage, disturbance of peace, impairment of dignity)

• The premises of the mission, their furnishings and other property and the means of transport of the mission shall be immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution

archives are inviolable (free communication, official correspondence, diplomatic bags, diplomatic couriers)

 

By way of Quid pro quo members of d.m. owe duties towards the receiving State:

• to respect the law

• premises must not be used in any manner incompatible with the functions of the mission

 

Rights and privileges are not granted for the personal benefit of the individuals concerned, but to ensure the efficient performance of the functions of the diplomatic mission.

 

Privileges and immunities of diplomatic agents:

1. The person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable (not liable to any form of arrest or detention)

2. Must be treated him with due respect and shall take all appropriate steps to prevent any attack on his person, freedom or dignity.

3. enjoys immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State.

4. He shall also enjoy immunity from its civil and administrative jurisdiction, except in the case of:

• a real action relating to private immovable property not on behalf of the sending State for the purposes of the mission;

• an action relating to succession in which the diplomatic agent is involved as executor, administrator, heir or legatee as a private person and not on behalf of the sending State;

• an action relating to any professional or commercial activity exercised by the diplomatic agent in the receiving State outside his official functions.

 

Diplomatic agent:

• not obliged to give evidence as a witness.

• immunity of a diplomatic agent from the jurisdiction of the receiving State does not exempt him from the jurisdiction of the sending State.

• are not exempt from administrative or civil proceedings whenever they voluntarily submit to jurisdiction, waiving their right to immunity from jurisdiction.

 

1. The private residence of a diplomatic agent shall enjoy the same inviolability and protection as the premises of the mission.

2. His papers, correspondence shall likewise enjoy inviolability

3. A diplomatic agent shall be exempt from all dues and taxes, personal or real, national, regional or municipal, except:

• indirect taxes of a kind which are normally incorporated in the price of goods or services;

• dues and taxes on private immovable property situated in the territory of the receiving State, unless he holds it on behalf of the sending State for the purposes of the mission;

• estate, succession or inheritance duties levied by the receiving State

• dues and taxes on private income having its source in the receiving State and capital taxes on investments made in commercial undertakings in the receiving State;

• charges levied for specific services rendered

• registration, court or record fees, mortgage dues and stamp duty, with respect to immovable property

 

By way of quid pro quo for the enjoyment of privileges and immunities, members of diplomatic missions owe certain duties towards the receiving State. These are:

• the duty to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State;

• the duty not to interfere in the internal affairs of the receiving State;

• all official business of the communication by the mission with the receiving State should be through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the receiving State, or with such other ministries as may be agreed;

• the premises of the mission must not be used in any manner incompatible with the functions of the mission;

• a diplomatic agent must not carry out any professional or commercial activity for personal profit in the receiving State.

 

8. Право внешних сношений. Консульские функции. Консульский иммунитет.

Customary rules on the legal status of consular agents were codified in the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (VCCR): entered into force in 1967.

Consular agents perform activities designed to protect the commercial and other interests of the appointing State and in particular render assistance to nationals of that State.

 

CR establishment:

• by mutual consent

establishment of DR implies establishment of CR

severance of DR does NOT imply severance of CR

 

Functions:

• protect interests of its state and nationals (both individuals and bodies corporate)

• further the development of relations (cultural, commercial, economic, scientific)

• help and assist nationals

• issuing passports and travel documents to nationals of the sending State, and visas or appropriate documents to persons wishing to travel to the sending State

• acting as notary and civil registrar and in capacities of a similar kind, and performing certain functions of an administrative nature, provided that there is nothing contrary thereto in the laws and regulations of the receiving State

• representation of nationals before the tribunals and other authorities

Career consul – official appointed by the sending State with consent of the receiving State

 

Honorary consul:

• not member of a diplomatic mission,

• may be citizen of the host State,

• appointed by the sending State with consent of the host State,

• usually a representative of business.

 

Consulate – office of consul (usually subordinate to the state’s main representation in the host State, may be part of embassy)

Privileges and immunities:

• not enjoy personal immunities

• only immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction for acts done in the official exercise of their consular functions (functional immunities)

• inviolability of premises, archives, and documents

• exemption from taxation

• freedom of movement and communication


The head of a consular post is admitted to the exercise of his functions by an authorization from the receiving State termed an exequatur, whatever the form of this authorization.

(Refusal must not be reasoned).

 

9. Проблема соблюдения основных прав и свобод человека в мире. Всеобщая декларация прав человека. Habeas Corpus Act

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

 

International law of Human Rights - is the body of international law designed to promote and protect human rights at the international, regional and domestic levels.

The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948) has 30 articles which have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions and laws.

The International Bill of Human Rights is an informal name given to one General Assembly resolution and two international treaties established by the United Nations. It consists of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted in 1948), theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) with its two Optional Protocols and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966). The two covenants entered into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them

 

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights includes:

• right to work

• right to form and join community

• right to rest and leasure, right have holidays with pay

 

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights includes:

• right to life, liberty and security of person

• right for privacy and property

• right to marry and find family

 

Habeas corpus is a writ (court order) that requires a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court. The principle of habeas corpus ensures that a prisoner can be released from unlawful detention—that is, detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence.

The procedure for issuing a writ of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679.

10. Государство как субъект международного права. Границы, права, обязанности государств. Признание суверенитета государств.

States are the most important and most powerful of the subjects of international law.

Accordint to the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (1933), state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications:

• a permanent population

• a defined territory

• a government

• a capacity to enter into relations with the states

 

4 qualifications + 5-th qualification (the recognition of the Security Council of the UN) make a state in a modern shape. Before any new state can be formally recognized, it has to meet the approval of the UN General Assembly (it needs the consent of the Security Council). 9 of 15 members should vote for, including 5 permanent members

 

Kosovo - not recognized by Russia and China

The republic of Somaliland - not recognized by any state

Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Nagorno-Karabakh and Trandniester - acknowledge each other’s status, but this is not shared by the rest of the world.

Taiwan - not recognized by China

The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus - only recognized by Turkey

 

11. Международное морское право. Правовой режим прибрежных зон. Проблема морского пиратства

The law of the Sea: legal regime of coastal zones

The 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (entered into force in 1994):

defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources.

sets the limit of various areas, measured from a carefully defined baseline:

• Normally, a sea baseline follows the low-water line, but when the coastline is deeply indented, has fringing islands or is highly unstable, straight baselines may be used

 

Internal waters:

• rivers, lakes, sea waters within baselines

full and exclusive sovereignty of the State

no right of innocent passage

 

The territorial sea:

• breadth limit – 12 nautical miles from baseline

• complete sovereignty of the coastal State (along with airspace, seabed, and subsoil)

• right of innocent passage of foreign merchants' ships and warships

 

The contiguous zone:

- up to 24 nautical miles from the baselines

- coastal State may enforce laws in four specific areas: pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.

 







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