Студопедия — Bare Infinitive
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Bare Infinitive






1. Find the Assumption

2. Draw a Conlcusion

3. Weaken the conclusion (undermine, show the flaw, cast doubt, challenge, ease/allay fears, jeopardize the validity of the explanation). Distractors. (in other countries..., comparing with something, extreme answers (everyone, always) ARE NOT CHOSEN!

4. Strengthen the Conclusion (additional fact question).

5. Inference (to infer)

6. Paradox questions. reconcile, explain the discrepancy.

7. Evaluate.

8. Resolve a problem.

9. Restate the conclusion.

10. Provide an example.

11. Mimic tbe argument.

12. analyze the argument struture

 

Essay.

1. Лексика

2. Не писать длинные предложения

3. от 300 до 420 слов.

4. Noteworthy ideas.

5. Analysis of an issue.

 

Thus the argument is not completely sound:

The evidence in support of the conclusion does little to prove the conclusion- that the training will make better teachers- since it does not address the assumptions already raised. Ultimately, the argument might be strengthened by making it plain that the training will be relevant to the problem that the current teachers haven't passed this training yet and that they won't be able to continue teaching unless they do it.

Contents

 

 

Page

Verbals 4

The Infinitive 5

Grammar Practice 20

Grammar in Use 46

Fun with Grammar 63

 

The Gerund 77

Grammar Practice 99

Grammar in Use 117

Fun with Grammar 122

 

The Participle 129

Grammar Practice 142

Grammar in Use 163

Fun with Grammar 167

 

General Revision 173


Verbals

(Non-Finite Forms of the English Verbs)

 

1. The verb has finite and non-finite forms, which are also called verbals. There are three verbals in English: the infinitve, the gerund and the participle.

The verbals have the following characteristics:

a) The verbals, unlike the finite forms, do not express person, number or mood; they cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.

b) They have a double nature, nominal and verbal: they combine some characteristics of the verb with those of the adjective, the adverb or the noun.

c) Like the finite forms of the verb, the verbals have the tense and voice distinctions. Their tense distinctions are relative: their form does not refer the action to the present, past or future, it shows only whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb or prior to it.

d) All the verbals can form predicative constructions, which consist of two elements: a noun / pronoun + verbal; the verbal element stands in predicate relations to the nominal element, i.e. in a relation similar to that between the predicate and the subject of a sentence.

e) In a sentence a verbal can occur:

- singly, i.e. without accompanying words.

She went away smiling.

Reading is out of the question.

To decide is to act.

- in phrases, with one or more accompanying words.

Lucy came in smiling happily.

Selling insurance is a pretty boring job.

It’s easy to make mistakes.

- in predicative constructions.

His study was a nice room with books lining the walls.

Do you recall Richard’s doing that?

Is it usual for foxes to come so close to the town?

The Infinitive

Introduction

The infinitive is a plain verb stem which is usually preceded by the particle to,e.g. to take.

The infinitive has a double nature, nominal and verbal.

The nominal character of the infinitive is manifested in it syntactic functions, i.e.:

- the subject To wait for people made him angry.

- a predicative My ambition was to retire at thirty.

- an object My granny has never learnt to read or write.

The verbal characteristics of the infinitive are as follows:

- The infinitive can take a direct object.

Jack began to feel some curiosity.

- The infinitive can be modified by an adverb.

I thought it strange for her to be out so late.

- The infinitive has analytical forms expressing tense, aspect and voice distinctions.

 

Forms

The infinitive has the following forms:

 

  Active Passive
Indefinite To take To be taken
Continuous To be taking  
Perfect To have taken To have been taken
Perfect Continuous To have been taking  

 

3.1. The Indefinite Infinitive expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb. So it may refer to the present, past or future.

Roger seemed to know all about it.

I’ll be glad to run across an old schoolmate.

3.2. The Continuous (progressive) Infinitive also denotes an action simultaneous with that denoted by the finite verb but it is an action in progress.

It’s nice to be sitting here with you.

Why’s she so late? She can’t still be working.

I noticed that he seemed to be smoking a lot.

 

3.3. The Perfect Infinitive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

He seemed to have guessed the truth.

I’m sorry not to have come on Thursday.

We often use perfect infinitives to talk about “unreal” past events: things that did not happen or might not have happened.

You should have told me you were coming.

After such verbs as to mean, expect, intend, hope, in the Past Indefinite, the Perfect Infinitive shows that the hope or intention was not carried out.

I meant to have telephoned but I forgot.(= I had meant to telephone … = I meant to telephone but never did.)

 

3.4. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an action which lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb (and might be still going on).

They seemed to have been getting on a bit better.

He must have been feeling all along that there was something strange about the whole affair.

 

3.5. The infinitive of transitive verbs has passive forms which are used when the subject is not the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive but may undergo this action, be acted upon.

I have not come here to be insulted but to talk to you as a friend.

She ought to be told about it.

Sometimes active and passive infinitives can have similar meanings, especially after a noun, in sentences with the construction there is.

The people to interview / to be interviewed are in the next room.

There is a lot of work to do / to be done.

There are six letters to post / to be posted.

 

Perfect passive infinitives are common.

They were very lucky – they could have been killed.

 

Continuous passive infinitives are possible but unusual.

“What would you like to be doing now?”

“I’d like to be being massaged. ”

Perfect Continuous passive infinitives do not normally occur, e.g. “It must have been being built then.”

 

Bare Infinitive

The particle to is normally used before infinitives.

He wanted to go.

4.1. However, in some cases the bare infinitive (i.e. the infinitive without the particle to) is used:

- after auxiliary verbs

Do you think she might be joking?

- after modal verbs (except ought, sometimes need and dare)

You could walk round the earth in a year.

- after verbs denoting sense perception such as hear, see, notice, feel, watch.

We both heard him say that he was leaving.

I didn’t see you come in.

- after the verb to let.

She lets her children stay up very late.

Let me just get my coat and I’ll be with you.

- after the verbs to make and to have in the meaning “заставлять, велеть, допускать”.

I made them give me my money back.

Have Mrs. Hansen come in, please.

- after the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, cannot choose but, nothing but, rather than.

You ’d better see what she wants.

I didn’t enjoy it. I’d rather have stayed at home.

Rather than wait, I decided to take a taxi.

You’ve done nothing but grumble all day.

- after why (not)

Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices.

You’re looking tired. Why not take a holiday?

 

4.2. Sometimes a bare infinitive or a to-infinitive can be used:

- after the verbs to know, to see, to observe (mostly in perfect tenses)

I’ve never known him (to) pay for a drink.

- after help

Could you help me (to) unload the car?

- after the link verb to be in sentences like:

All I did was (to) give him a little push.

- after and, or, except, but, than, as, like. When two infinitives are joined by and, or, except, etc. the second is often used without to.

I’d like to lie down and go to sleep.

It’s easier to do it yourself than explain to anybody else how to do it.

I have to feed the animals as well as look after the children.

As for the housework, she does everything except cook.

4.3. After the verbs hear, see, make, know, help in the passive the to-infinitive is used.

She was heard to say that she disagreed.

He was made to pay back the money.

Lydia was never known to complain or find fault.

 

4.4. The particle to is used instead of a whole infinitive if it is easily understood from the context.

“Are you and Gillian getting married? “ “We hope to ”.

I don’t dance much now, but I used to a lot.

“Somebody ought to clean the bathroom.” “I’ll ask John to ”.

Be and stative have are not usually dropped.

There are more flowers than there used to be.

You’ve got more freckles than you used to have.

We cannot usually leave out to after would like / love / hate / prefer, want and choose.

My parents encouraged me to study art, but I didn’t want to.

However, to is often dropped after want and almost always after like, when these are used after conjunctions, for instance when, if, what, as:

Come when you want (to).

I’ll do what I like.

 

4.5. A “split infinitive” is a structure in which to is separated from the rest of the infinitive by an adverb.

I’d like to really understand philosophy.

Split infinitives are quite common in English, especially in an informal style. Some people consider them incorrect or careless, and avoid them by putting an adverb in another position.

He began slowly to get up off the floor.

 







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