MEDICAL SPECIALTIES AND SPECIALISTS 24 страницаMany internal organs are insensitive to what are generally regarded as painful stimuli. Tumors have been removed from the brain of patients, who remained conscious during the entire operation, without causing any pain. Handling, cutting or cauterizing the intestine never gives rise to pain. However, pain can be elicited from most hollow organs by an increase of the tension of their walls: this is brought about by great distension (e.g. accumulation of gas in the intestine, or the passage of a gallstone through the bile ducts) or by excessive contraction of their musculature. Pain can be relieved by reducing the irritability of the nerve as by compression, cold, drugs or by reducing the sensitivity of the cerebral cells, as in general anesthesia. Pain can be elicited by stimulating a nerve fiber at any point along its course, but the sensation is always referred, or projected, to the endings of the nerve. Pain cannot always be definitely localized, especially when it is severe and of long duration, the sensation then seems to spread to neighboring parts. Pain experienced in internal organs is sometimes referred to another and generally, external part of the body. In diseases of some internal organs, certain cutaneous areas may become hyperalgesic (excessively sensitive to pain), so that the least stimulation, such as a soft touch, or even a breath of air, applied to this part of the skin gives rise to pain. Exercise 2. Find interpretation of the following words in the dictionary. To evoke, sufficiently, cornea, viscera, threshold, irritability, to threaten, nociceptor, to elicit.
Exercise 3. Find sentences about receptors in the text.
Exercise 4. Find sentences about reaction of the visceral organs to pain. Exercise 5. Answer the questions. 1. How can pain be relieved? 2. Can pain be localized? 3. Where are receptors for pain distributed? 4. What are nociceptors? 5. Is pain the most primitive sensation?
UNIT TWENTY-THREE
I. Speaking: Sensory System After careful study of this unit you should be able to: - - list the major senses; - describe the structure of the eye; - list several disorders of the eye; ~ describe the structure of the ear; - list disorders of the ear; - name other special sense organs; - list general senses.
Exercise 2. Read the information about the sensory system, translate it and learn by heart. The sensory system serves fundamentally to protect the individual by detecting changes in the environment. The sensory system includes:
1. 2. Hearing from receptors in the ear. 3. Taste from the tongue receptors. 4. Smell from receptors in the upper nasal cavities. 5. Pressure, heat, cold, pain, and touch from receptors in the skin. 6. Position and balance from the muscles, tendons, joints, and ear. Exercise 3. Acquaint yourself with the structure of the eye using Fig. 22-1. a) Make up your own vocabulary b) Learn the words. c) Describe the structure of the eye. Exercise 4. Read the information about eye disorders. The conjunctiva [.krjnchjAnk'taiva] is a membrane that lines the eyelid (повіка) and cover? the anterior part of the sclera. Its inflammation is called conjunctivitis. Eyestrain, or fatigue of the eyes, may result from overuse of the eyes: reading, watchin: TV, poor lighting, or disturbances in the focusing ability of the eyes. Hyperopia [,Ьаірз'гзирі; is farsightedness. Myopia [таі'зиріз] is nearsightedness. Astigmatism [Ee'stigmaetizm] is due to irregularity in the curvature of the cornea or the len> (as a result, light rays are incorrectly bent). Strabismus [strae'bizmas] means that the muscles of the eyeballs do not coordinate, so th;: the two eyes do not work together (косоокість). Blindness is the absence of vision. It may be caused by cataracts, glaucoma or retina detachment. Exercise 5. Answer the following questions. 1. What disorders of the eyes can you name? 2. What is the difference between an oculist and an ophthalmologist? 3. What causes of eyestrain do you know? 4. What belongs to the sensory system?
a) Make up your own b) Learn these words.
c) Describe the structure of Exercise 7. Here is a list of ear disorders. Read it and try to memorize.
-Otitis (inflammation of the middle ear); -deafness (loss of hearing); -otosclerosis (a hereditary (спадковий) disease that causes bone changes in the stapes that prevent its normal vibration); -/jresZ>i>acM.s/s[,prezbe3'ku:sis] (a slowly progressive loss of hearing that often accompani aging). Exercise 8. Answer the questions (use Fig. 22-3). - What are the organs of taste and smell? - What kinds of taste do you know?
Sense Organs
Sense organs are the structures in the body which are influenced by certain factors in the environment. They are also well-known as receptors. The action of the environmental factor on the body is known as a stimulus. It results in the transmission of a nerve impulse to the nerve center and from this point may influence appropriate reactions of the body or may be stored in memory.
Stimuli arise from contacts with solid objects, from chemical compounds, either dissoh ec or in the gaseous state, from the incidence of light rays, from factors that damage the boc (Fig. 22-4). Tactile corpuscles located in surface tissues may be classed as organs of touch. They are sensitive to simple pressure and give rise to images of form through the varying pressures du: to uneven and gross contours. The varied integumentary sense organs of the human body are known to include sorr.^ sensitive only to heat, cold or pain. These organs may be free nerve endings found in the skin Ears are the center of the auditory organs. Dissolved substances stimulate organs of taste located in the oral cavity and gases or vapors act on organs of smell. Sense organs stimulated by light are familiar to us in our own eyes. In contrast with sense organs mentioned above which are classed as exteroceptors, the body contains others called interoceptors. They are sources of sensations of hunger, thirst, nausea and external pain. Other interoceptors in the muscles, joints and tendons are associated with the maintenance of equilibrium and are classed as proprioceptors. The semicircular canals of the inner ear are also organs of equilibration. All sense organs consist of nerve endings associated with various specialized cells or tissues. The nerves are not limited to one type of stimulation but other response may be identical under various stimuli. Thus a mechanical shock to the eye produces a sensation of light. The nerve fibers leading from the sense organs towards the central system are sensory or afferent. Exercise 10. Find English equivalents. Стимули виникають від контактів з твердими речовинами; вони - джерела відчуття голоду, спраги, нудоти і зовнішнього болю; всі органи відчуттів складаються з нервових закінчень. Control Tests. Nervous System and Sense Organs 1. What system is responsible for all activities A. Endocrine B. Muscular C. Nervous D. Reproductive E. Digestive 2. What is the role of the nervous system? A. Regulation and control of all systems B. Metabolism C. Nutrition D. Respiration E. Production of enzymes 3. What is the structural unit of the nervous A. Enzyme B. Hormone C. Nephron D. Neuron E. Substance 4. What does the central nervous system A. The brain B. The brain and spinal cord C. The spinal cord D. Nerves and ganglia E. Ganglia 5. What isn't included into the neuron? A. Axon B. Dendrite C. Body of neuron D. Pigment E. Neuron ending 6. The main property of the nerve fibre is. A. dividing B. widening C. spreading D. reaction to pain E. stimulation 7. What does the term "encephalitis" mean? A. Inflammation of the brain B. Inflammation of the spinal nerves C. Inflammation of the brain mater D. inflammation of the cricoid nerve E. Inflammation of the head 8. What part of the brain controls the left part A. Central B. Frontal C. Left D. Right E. Back 9. What is the largest portion of the brain? A. Medulla oblongata B. Cerebellum C. Cerebrum D. Ventriculus E. Brain stem 10. What is the junction between neurons A. Axon B. Dendrite C. Synapse D. Impulse E. Reflex 11. What conducts impulses from the cell A. Afferent nerves B. Efferent nerves C. Motor fibers D. Sensory fibers E. Axon 12. What conducts impulses to the cell body? A. Dendrite B. Axon C. Nerve fiber D. Bundle of nerves E. All answers are right 13. Nerve is an electric current that spreads along the nerve fiber. A. cell B. ending C. bundle D. impulse E. function 14.____ is a simple, rapid, automatic response involving few neurons. A. Impulse B. Reflex C. Synapse D. Stimulus E. Reaction 15. The nervous system includes the brain. the spinal cord. A. central B. middle C. autonomous D. somatic E. peripheral 16. The nervous system includes the cranial nerves and spinal nerves. A. central B. middle C. autonomous D. somatic E. peripheral 17. Inflammation of the nerve is_________. A. nephritis B. meningitis C. myelitis D. neuritis E. neurosis 18. The reflex consists of five components. the receptor, the afferent pathway, the nervous center, the efferent pathway and the effector. A. impulse B. arc C. way D. kind E. center 19. How many pairs of cranial nerves are A.10 B. 30 C. 12 D. 20 E. 22 B. Pathologist C. Ophthalmologist D. Gastrologist E. Oculist 33. Deafness is_______. A. absence of vision B. loss of appetite C. hunger D. loss of hearing E. loss of smell 34. Blindness is_______. A. loss of vision B. loss of smell C. loss of balance D. loss of hearing E. loss of weight 35. How many parts does the ear have? A. 2 B. 3 D. 5 E. 1 36. What are the names of ossicles of the ear? A. Stirrup and anvil, cochlea B. Hammer and malleus, cochlea C. Malleus, incus, stapes D. Incus, stapes and cochlea E. Anvil, hammer 37. What does not belong to taste? A. Sweet B.Sour C. Bitter D. Pain E. Salty 38. You touched a hot iron with your fingers. A. Pain B. Thirst C. Satisfaction D. Joy E. Horror 39. How do we call the system of perception A. Digestive B. Reproductive C. Nervous D. Sensory E. Integumentary 40. What covers the human body? A. Hair B. Nails C. Skin D. Glands E. Sheet 41. What doesn't belong to the skin, A. Hair B. Nails C. Beard D. Eyelashes E. Sweat 42. Lesions of the skin are_________. A. wounds B. herpes C. dermatitis D. nails E. rash on it 43. What is the main duty of the nurse whe A. To prevent diseases B. To prevent decubitus ulcers C. To feed the patients D. To wash the patients E. To help the patients to walk 44. What does the term "urticaria" mean? A. Sunburn B. Contagious disease C. Allergic reaction D. Eczema E. Perspiration 45. What doctor treats diseases of the skin? A. Narcologist B. Dermatologist C. Traumatologist D. Urologist E. Ophthalmologist 46. A rash on the child's skin appears suddenly. A. To take the temperature B. To consult a doctor C. To give some medicine D. To go for a walk with the child E. To put iodine on the places of rash 47. What is the Greek equivalent of "skin"? A. Cutis B. Derma C. Dermatitis D. Tunica E. Covering 48. The color of the skin depends on the A. sweat B. oil C.sunburn D. melanine E. milk 49. The main function of the mammary glands A. to produce milk B. to regulate the temperature C. to form the figure D. to protect the heart E. All answers are right 50. What does the term "perspiration" mean? A. Heat action B. Secretion of sweat C. Temperature condition D. Secretion of waste products E. Inflammation of the skin
II. Grammar Exercises Exercise 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form. 1. This doctor (to read) a newspaper now. 2. He (to read) newspapers every day. 3. They (to make) a new device last month. 4. They (to make) this device. You may see it. 5. The nurses (to fulfill) some prescriptions at present. 6. We (to fill in) the case histories today. 7. They (to fill in) many case histories yesterday. 8. The nurse (to make) an injection now. 9. The nurses (to make) injections every day. Exercise 2. Put questions to a nurse filling the blanks with the necessary words. 1. What... this patient's temperature? 2.... you give him the drugs yesterday? 3. How... times did... give him these tablets? 4. Did you... him mustard plasters on the back? 5. When... you cup him last week? 6.... you fulfill all the doctor's prescriptions every day? 7. Have an ophthalmologist... him today? 8. What... he say?
1. Every student can list the signs of this disease. 2. You may carry on the experiment in the laboratory. 3. You must finish this translation not later than tomorrow. 4. This doctor ought to be more attentive to his patients. 5. You should work as much as possible. 6. Where shall he switch on this device? 7. We will help you tomorrow. 8. He tried to explain it, but we wouldn't listen to him. 9. You need to devote particular attention to this patient. 10. He dared test this device without permission. 12. You ought not to have touched those devices. 13. You needn't do it. 14. Your documents might be received yesterday. 15. You could have finished your work in time if you had worked harder. Exercise 5. Translate into English using modal verbs. 1. Ми можемо бачити очима, чути вухами, відчувати дотик кінчиками пальців. 2. Ці рецептори повинні бути у шкірі. 3. Ти розкажеш про сенсорну систему? 4. Твоя мама повинна проконсультуватися в офтальмолога негайно. 5. Він потребує огляду отоларинголога. 6. Можна я спочатку пройду огляд у невропатолога? Exercise 6. Translate the sentences paying attention to the verbs should/would. 1. We should all be grateful to professor Petrenko for his valuable report. 2. There was a general recognition that bone tumors should be treated surgically. 3. Doctor Hryshchenko, would you kindly comment on this cure? 4. I should like to ask professor Nesterov what was found advisable in the treatment of this disease. 5. I'd like to write down the names of prominent specialists in heart surgery. 6. It would be difficult to separate this progress from the general achievements of the science. III. Independent Work: Drugs Exercise 1. Read the text. Translate it using the vocabulary below.
Drugs Every human society uses some drugs to change people's state of awareness1. Drugs can mean everything from cigarettes and alcohol to heroin, opium, amphetamines, LSD and cocaine. In our society the main drugs are alcohol, nicotine and caffeine, while in Peru chewing cola leaves (which are used to produce cocaine) is an everyday activity, and in some Middle Eastern countries smoking hashish (marijuana) or opium is legal2 while alcohol is banned3. Drugs which can influence4 our state of consciousness3 are known as psychoactive drugs. All psychoactive drugs affect6 the nervous system in some way, but they have different effects by influencing different parts of it. For example, caffeine, which we take in coffee or cola drinks, acts on the autonomic nervous system to produce a state of arousal7 in the body. So it is not surprising that it helps people to wake up in the morning, but in large quantities it can make one irritable8 and edgy9. Morphine and heroine are sometimes used medically, because they are powerful painkillers10. People who take the drugs report that they make them feel euphoric, as though they are not quite in touch with11 that reality, and good because there is no physical discomfort or fatigue12 at all. But the problem is that when it wears off13, people feel very unpleasant, so it is extremely easy to become both physically and mentally addicted14 to these drags. Marijuana was widely used as a tranquillizer15 in the nineteenth century, and for over two thousand years in the Far East. We know that it acts as a mild depressant, damping down16 the actions of the autonomic nervous system and producing muscular relaxation. Because of this some users report17 a sense of time passing very slowly, and an increased sensitivity18 to sensory19 stimulation such as music or art. Ecstasy, or MDMA, is a highly prosocial drug. In other words, it makes people feel social20 and pleasant towards one another. It also enhances awareness of music and color. Ecstasy is often associated with rave music and huge discos, especially in Western Countries. It is interesting that MDMA was discovered in 1914 and was used in marriage guidance counselling21, to ease the tension between people so that they could talk over their problems more effectively. In 1970s, however, it became popular as a recreational22 drug, and has now been made illegal. The stimulant drugs known as amphetamines, or "speed", also sometimes seem to have a prosocial effect, at least in small doses. But in large doses, amphetamines can lead to severe23 mental illness, known as amphetamine psychosis. This involves a distortion24 of reality, the person often becomes extremely paranoid and disturbed25. Amphetamines are also highly addictive drugs. Another well-known psychoactive drug is known as LSD, or sometimes as "acid"26. It is a hallucinogen27, which means that people who take it can also experience hallucinations seeing things, which are not actually present. Both natural and synthetic drags can change our moods, our state of awareness and зиг perception28 of reality. They can infect the system leading to sores29, jaundice30, blood poisoning31 and AIDS disease. Many signs indicate32 that a person is taking drags, for example, ~udden changes of mood, irritability33, aggression, loss34 of appetite, loss of interest in hobbies?: friends, insomnia35, furtive behavior36, unusual smells37, stains38 on the body. What pushes people to take drugs? There are many reasons. Some people turn to drags to help relax and cope with the stress and problems of their lives. Some experience39 many pressures at school, work, from parents, friends, they are not loved, frightened or frustrated40. Still others take drags simply out of curiosity41 but often become addicted. Some people want to make their experiences. Many people think that drags are the best way out42. However they do not realize how devastating43 and dangerous they are. Notes: 1 awareness [s'wesnss] свідомість, усвідомлення (чогось) 2 legal ['li:gl] легальний, законний 3 banned [bamd] заборонений 4 influence ['inflosns] впливати 5 consciousness ['krjnjssnss] свідомість 6 affect [s'fekt] мати вплив (на) 7 arousal [s'rauzel] стан збудження * irritable ['iritsbl] дратівливий 9 edgy ['ecfji] нервовий 10 painkiller ['реіпгкі1з(г)] знеболюючий засіб, анальгетик 11 in touch with — у контакті з ким-н. 12 fatigue [fs'thg] втома 13 wear off ['w£3,of] зникати, минати 14 addicted [s'diktid] залежний від (чогось, когось) 15 tranquilliser ['trffirjkwslaizsj транквілізатор, за- спокійливий 16 damping down — знижуючи 17 report [ri'po:t] розповідати, доповідати sensitivity [,sensi'tiv9ti] чутливість, вразливість 19 sensory ['senssri] сенсорний 2,1 social ['ssojl] комунікабельний 2' marriage guidance counselling — кваліфікована порада подружжю 22 recreational [,гекгі'еіГзп1] розважальний
23 severe [si'via] сильний, суворий, інтенсивний 24distortion [dis'to:Jh] перекручення, спотворення (фактів тощо) 25 disturbed [,dis't3:bd] душевнохворий; занепокоєний 2Ь acid ['sesid] кислота 27 hallucinogen [,haelu:'sin3d33n] галюциноген 28 perception [ps'sepjn] сприйняття 29 sore [so:] болячка 30 jaundice ['djomdis] гепатит (жовтяниця) 31 blood poisoning ['bUd.poizsnirj] отруєння крові '2 indicate [indikeit] вказувати 33 irritability [irita'biliti] дратівливість 34 loss [Ids] втрата 35 insomnia [in'snmnis] безсоння 36 furtive behavior ['f3:tivbi'heiyJ3(r)] нервова або підозріла поведінка 37 smell — запах 3S stain [stein] пляма 39 experience — переживати 40 frustrated [frAStreitid] засмучений, прикро вра- жений 41 curiosity [,kju3ri'DS3ti] цікавість, допитливість 42 way out [,wei'aut] вихід 43 devastating ['devs.steitirj] руйнівний, спустош- ливий
Exercise 2. Are these statements true (T) or false (F) according to the text? 1. Drugs are banned in all countries of the world. 2. The effect of a drug depends on which part of the nervous system it influences. 3. Much coffee lets you come down. 4. Morphine is used to relieve pains. 5. Natural drugs are not dangerous. 6. If a person is irritable, aggressive and does not have any appetite, he or she is taking Exercise 3. Look at the words and divide them into two groups: reasons for taking drugs and results of taking drugs. Problems in school. The loss of a dear person. Sudden changes of mood. Frightening hallucinations. Everyday problems. The lack of understanding from others. Curiosity. Sleeplessness. Boredom. Nervousness. Stress.
Exercise 4. Match the words and their definitions.
UNIT TWENTY-FOUR
I. Speaking: Endocrine System After careful study of this unit you should be able to: - compare the effects of the nervous system and the endocrine system in controlling the organism; - describe the functions of hormones; - list the endocrine glands;
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Vision from receptors in the eye.
Exercise 6. Acquaint yourself with the structure of the ear using Fig. 22-2.
